ROGERS, C.J.
The dispositive issue in this certified appeal is whether a defective highway claim based on the design of Route 44 across Avon Mountain falls within the purview of General Statutes § 13a-144,
The following facts and procedural history are relevant to our disposition of this appeal. The plaintiff brought this defective highway action against the defendant alleging that, on July 29, 2005, the decedent "was operating his motor vehicle easterly along [Route] 44, a public highway in Avon ... when a series of collisions occurred when a truck owned by American Crushing and Recycling, LLC, lost control as it traveled down Avon Mountain on Route 44 ... result[ing] in the death of [the decedent]."
The plaintiff alleged that the decedent's injuries and death resulted from the neglect or default of the defendant, "by means of a defective road, in one or more of the following ways:
"(a) in that [the defendant] utilized a plan of design, construction and/or repair for the area of Route 44 described above, adopted by the state of Connecticut and/or its employees, which was totally inadmissible,
"(c) in that [the defendant] failed to construct a necessary runaway truck ramp;
"(d) in that [the defendant] failed to prohibit trucks on this roadway in the absence of other safeguards;
"(e) in that [the defendant] failed to have, or failed to have adequate, procedures for maintaining the downhill slope in a safe condition;
"(f) in that [the defendant] failed to train, or properly train, personnel in inspection of, or maintenance of, the signage and grade;
"(g) in that [the defendant] failed to maintain, or properly maintain, the roadway for traffic upon it;
"(h) in that [the defendant] failed to inspect, or properly inspect, the roadway so that it could be maintained or properly maintained;
"(i) in that [the defendant] failed to train, or properly train, personnel to inspect the roadway so that it could be maintained or properly maintained;
"(j) in that [the defendant] failed to have, or failed to have adequate, procedures for inspecting and maintaining the roadway so as to be safe for vehicular traffic;
"(k) in that [the defendant] failed to have procedures in place so adequate notice could be given to correct unsafe conditions on the roadway or so that the roadway could be closed;
"(l) in that [the defendant] failed to follow procedures which were intended to give adequate notice so that unsafe conditions on the roadway could be corrected, or the roadway closed;
"(m) in that [the defendant] failed to provide adequate advance warning of said dangerous area to oncoming motorists so that they could avoid foreseeable out of control vehicles coming down the [Avon] [M]ountain;
"(n) in that [the defendant] failed to close the road until conditions could be made safe for travel;
"(o) in that [the defendant] failed to follow practices and procedures set forth in the state's Policy Manual;
"(p) in that [the defendant] failed to properly supervise state agents, servants or employees who were responsible for maintaining the roadway in a safe condition, and/or
"(q) in that [the defendant] failed to install visible street signage causing the truck to proceed down [Avon] [M]ountain missing the turn off." (Footnote added.)
The defendant filed a motion to dismiss the action on the ground that the plaintiff's allegations were insufficient, as a matter of law, to state a claim under § 13a-144.
The defendant appealed from the trial court's decision to the Appellate Court.
We begin with the governing legal principles and standard of review. "[W]e have long recognized the validity of the common-law principle that the state cannot be sued without its consent.... Nevertheless, a plaintiff may surmount this bar against suit if, inter alia, he can demonstrate that the legislature, either expressly or by force of a necessary implication, statutorily waived the state's sovereign immunity.... Even when there is an express statutory waiver of immunity, however, the plaintiff's complaint must allege a claim falling within the scope of that waiver....
"Lack of a statutory waiver of immunity is a jurisdictional defect properly raised by a motion to dismiss.... A motion to dismiss ... properly attacks the jurisdiction of the court, essentially asserting that the plaintiff cannot as a matter of law and fact state a cause of action that should be heard by the court.... [O]ur review of the court's ultimate legal conclusion and resulting [determination] of the motion to dismiss will be de novo....
"When a trial court decides a jurisdictional question raised by a pretrial motion to dismiss on the basis of the complaint alone, it must consider the allegations of the complaint in their most favorable light.... In this regard, a court must take the facts to be those alleged in the complaint, including those facts necessarily implied from the allegations, construing them in a manner most favorable to the pleader." (Citations omitted; footnote omitted; internal quotation marks omitted.) Conboy v. State, 292 Conn. 642, 649-51, 974 A.2d 669 (2009).
"The state highway liability statute is a legislative exception to the common law doctrine of sovereign immunity and is to be strictly construed in favor of the state. While negligence was a common law tort, there was no liability of the sovereign at common law for a defective highway in negligence or on any other common law theory.... The state highway liability statute imposes the duty to keep the state highways in repair upon the highway commissioner; that is the statutory command. Therefore, because there was no right of action against the sovereign at common law, a plaintiff, in order to recover, must bring himself within § 13a-144." (Citations omitted.) White v. Burns, 213 Conn. 307, 321, 567 A.2d 1195 (1990).
In order for a plaintiff to recover under § 13a-144, "the plaintiff must prove by a preponderance of the evidence: (1) that the highway was defective as claimed; (2) that the [Commissioner of Transportation] actually knew of the particular defect or that, in the exercise of [his] supervision of highways ... [he] should have known of that defect; (3) that the [Commissioner of Transportation], having actual or constructive knowledge of this defect, failed to remedy it having had a reasonable time, under all the circumstances, to do so; and (4) that the defect
We have defined a highway defect as "any object or condition in, upon, or near the traveled path which would necessarily obstruct or hinder one in the use of the road for the purpose of traveling thereon, or which, from its nature and position, would be likely to produce that result." Hickey v. Newtown, 150 Conn. 514, 518-19, 192 A.2d 199 (1963); accord McIntosh v. Sullivan, supra, 274 Conn. at 268-69, 875 A.2d 459 ("[w]e have held that a highway defect is [a]ny object in, upon, or near the traveled path, which would necessarily obstruct or hinder one in the use of the road for the purpose of traveling thereon, or which, from its nature and position, would be likely to produce that result" [internal quotation marks omitted]). "[I]f there is a defective condition that is not in the roadway, it must be so direct a menace to travel over the way and so susceptible to protection and remedial measures which could be reasonably applied within the way that the failure to employ such measures would be regarded as a lack of reasonable repair." Comba v. Ridgefield, 177 Conn. 268, 271, 413 A.2d 859 (1979); see id., at 269, 271, 413 A.2d 859 (overhanging tree limb that fell on automobile was not highway defect because it "did not obstruct, hinder or operate as a menace to travel").
Moreover, "[w]e have consistently held that [t]he state is not an insurer of the safety of travelers on the highways which it has a duty to repair. Thus, it is not bound to make the roads absolutely safe for travel.... Rather, the test is whether or not the state has exercised reasonable care to make and keep such roads in a reasonably safe condition for the reasonably prudent traveler." (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Hall v. Burns, 213 Conn. 446, 462-63, 569 A.2d 10 (1990); accord Donnelly v. Ives, 159 Conn. 163, 167, 268 A.2d 406 (1970) ("[t]he duty imposed on the state by the provision of the defective highway statute is not such as to make the state an insurer for people using those highways which the defendant must keep in repair but is rather a duty to exercise reasonable care to make and keep such roads in a reasonably safe condition for the reasonably prudent traveler"); Chazen v. New Britain, 148 Conn. 349, 353, 170 A.2d 891 (1961) ("a [state] is not an insurer against accidents occurring on its highways; its duty is not to make the streets absolutely safe for the users thereof but only to exercise reasonable care to keep them in a reasonably safe condition for travel").
With these governing legal principles in mind, we turn to the plaintiff's allegations in the present case. In her complaint, the plaintiff alleges that the defendant "utilized a plan of design, construction and/or repair ... which was totally inadmissible, in that it created an unsafe condition...." See footnote 4 of this opinion. Specifically, the plaintiff alleges that the absence of tangible safety measures, including a runaway truck ramp and adequate signage warning of the steep downhill grade, as well as the failure to prohibit trucks on the roadway in the absence of these and other safeguards,
Although the plaintiff does not specifically allege that the downhill grade of the roadway constituted part of the claimed design defect, we are mindful that "[t]he complaint must be read in its entirety in such a way as to give effect to the pleading with reference to the general theory upon which it proceeded...." (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Grenier v. Commissioner of Transportation, 306 Conn. 523, 536, 51 A.3d 367 (2012). Indeed, the plaintiff argues, and we agree, that her allegations concerning the absence of certain safety measures must be viewed in the context of the steep downhill grade of Route 44. As the plaintiff states in her brief, "[a]lleged defects such as the absence of a runaway truck ramp, and adequate signage are only defective because of the topography of Route 44. If Route 44 was flat, or had a substantially less severe gradient ... [safety measures] like a runaway truck ramp would be entirely unnecessary." (Emphasis in original.)
We note, however, that the plaintiff has conceded both in her appellate brief and at oral argument before this court that she has not alleged that the steep downhill grade of Route 44 alone constitutes an actionable highway defect.
The question then becomes whether the complaint, so construed, states a cause of action under the defective highway statute. We begin our analysis with an overview of the parameters of the right of action afforded under § 13a-144 for damages arising from an alleged defect in a highway's design. "[I]t is well established that a public authority acts in a quasi-judicial or legislative capacity in adopting a plan for the improvement or repair of its streets or highways and ordinarily will not be liable for consequential damages for injuries due to errors or defects in the plan adopted.... Thus, as we stated in Hoyt v. Danbury, 69 Conn. 341, 37 A. 1051 (1897), [a] defect in the plan upon which [a] highway [is] constructed... [does] not [come] within the [defective highway] statute.... [Thus] injuries which it may occasion to travelers cannot be made the subject of any action in their favor. They are the result of an error of judgment on the part of the officers of a public corporation, on which has been cast the burden of discharging a governmental duty of a quasi-judicial character. For consequential damages thus occasioned to members of the general public, the common law never gave a remedy; nor has the statute changed the rule.... Id. [at], 351-52 [37 A. 1051].
"The hypothetical design claim that the court in Hoyt used to illustrate what an actionable design claim might resemble reveals the true nature and limitation of the `exception.' Specifically, the court described a sidewalk that `had been left with its grade broken simply by a four foot wall, without the provision of steps....' [Hoyt v. Danbury, supra, 69 Conn. at 352, 37 A. 1051]. According to the court, such a sidewalk `would have been in such a defective condition as to have been out of repair from the beginning.' Id. Thus, the cognizable design defect claim that the court hypothesized in Hoyt essentially would consist of an allegation that the plan of design called for a four foot drop or hole in the road. Indeed, the court in Hoyt immediately went on to state that, under its hypothetical, the plaintiff's claim would be `no stronger than if the road had been originally built in the best manner'; id.; because, logically, the highway defect statute covers four foot holes in the middle of the roadbed irrespective of how they came to be there. In other words, a design defect claim can be distinguished from a traditional highway defect claim only insofar as the former includes an allegation that the dangerous condition inhered in the highway's plan of design, that is, the defect was not created by some other external condition, such as a particular occurrence, like a storm, or normal wear and tear. In all other respects, however, a design defect claim is indistinguishable from any other highway defect claim and, accordingly, it is subject to all the same statutory requirements, including the requirement that the alleged defect actually be in the roadbed or so near to it as to `necessarily obstruct or hinder one in the use of the road for the purpose of traveling thereon....' Hewison v. New Haven, [34 Conn. 136, 142 (1867)]. [That is], Hoyt merely precludes the state from raising sovereign immunity as a defense when the plan of design, as implemented, creates the very type of hazardous condition for which the highway defect statute abrogated governmental immunity in the first place and for which the government
Thus, the issue we must decide in the present case is whether the plaintiff's allegations, if true, would amount to an actionable highway defect claim within the narrow exception in Hoyt to the general rule precluding liability for design defects. The plaintiff argues that the plan pursuant to which the highway was constructed was "totally inadmissible" because the highway was "inherently dangerous when put to the use for which it was intended and for which it [was] lawfully open." Specifically, the plaintiff claims that the roadway's steep grade and layout, combined with the absence of tangible safety measures, constituted a condition intrinsic to the roadway that rendered it defective within the meaning of the highway defect statute.
First, we are not persuaded by the plaintiff's attempt to distinguish her claim in the present case from the claim raised
On appeal, this court reversed the judgment of the Appellate Court. McIntosh v. Sullivan, supra, 274 Conn. at 264, 875 A.2d 459. We concluded that "[McIntosh's] allegations [were] insufficient to establish an actionable claim under § 13a-144 because the rocks and debris located above the highway did not impede or obstruct travel thereon." Id., at 285, 875 A.2d 459. Because McIntosh failed to allege an actionable highway defect, we held that, "[a] fortiori, [his] allegations [were] insufficient to fall within the limited exception to the general rule precluding liability for design defects." Id. Thus, the court determined that the plan of design providing for the location of the highway next to a rocky cliff, in combination with the absence of adequate warning signs and a barrier to prevent falling rocks from entering the highway, did not render the highway defective within the meaning of the defective highway statute.
Similarly, in the present case, we conclude that the plan of design providing for the steep downhill grade of the highway, in combination with the absence of adequate warning signs and tangible safety measures, did not render the highway defective within the meaning of § 13a-144. The absence of adequate warning signs and tangible safety measures is not a cognizable highway defect because it does not constitute an "object or condition in ... the traveled path which would necessarily obstruct or hinder one in the use of the road for the purpose of traveling thereon...."
Furthermore, the present case is distinguishable from the handful of cases in which this court has recognized a cognizable highway design defect claim. For instance, in Perrotti v. Bennett, 94 Conn. 533, 534-35, 109 A. 890 (1920), the municipality installed a drain pipe below the surface of the highway and, in accordance with the plan adopted, covered it with twelve inches of sand and gravel. The plaintiff brought a highway defect claim against the municipality after he was injured when the highway above the pipe collapsed under the weight of his vehicle. Id., at 535, 109 A. 890. The trial court found that the plaintiff's injuries were "due to a defect in the original plan of construction of said drain," and rendered judgment for the municipality. Id., at 535-36, 109 A. 890. On appeal, we reversed the trial court's judgment, concluding that the plaintiff's claim fell within the limited exception to the general rule barring liability for design defect claims pursuant to § 13a-144. Id., at 541-42, 109 A. 890.
In the present case, by contrast, the plan of design providing for the steep downhill grade, together with the absence of tangible safety measures, as implemented, did not create an otherwise actionable highway defect as defined by our case law. As discussed previously in this opinion, a highway defect is "[a]ny object [or condition] in, upon, or near the traveled path, which would necessarily obstruct or hinder one in the use of the road for the purpose of traveling thereon, or which, from its nature and position, would be likely to produce that result...." (Internal quotation marks omitted.) McIntosh v. Sullivan, supra, 274 Conn. at 273, 875 A.2d 459; Hickey v. Newtown, supra, 150 Conn. at 518-19, 192 A.2d 199. A properly constructed road on a 10 percent downhill grade, together with the absence of certain tangible safety measures, does not constitute a condition or object in the traveled path that would necessarily obstruct travel thereon. Indeed, the plaintiff does not claim that the road itself was in poor condition, either "in material or manner of construction...." Hoyt v. Danbury, supra, 69 Conn. at 352, 37 A. 1051. Instead, the plaintiff seeks to hold the defendant liable for its decision to construct a highway across a steep downhill grade, without including certain identified safety measures. This is precisely the nature of the claim that is precluded by virtue of Hoyt and its progeny. See Donnelly v. Ives, supra, 159 Conn. at 168, 268 A.2d 406 ("a public authority acts in a quasi-judicial or legislative capacity in adopting a plan for the [construction] of its streets or highways and ordinarily will not be liable for consequential damages for injuries due to error or defects in the plan adopted"); Hoyt v. Danbury, supra, at 351, 37 A. 1051 ("[a] defect in the plan upon which [a] highway [is] constructed ... [does] not [come] within the [highway defect] statute").
In the absence of an actionable hazard in the road that necessarily obstructed travel thereon, the defendant's decision in the present case regarding the location of the highway across a steep downhill grade, and the extent of warning signs necessary to alert motorists thereto, is not subject to collateral review by this court. "[I]t has long been the settled view, and an eminently justifiable one, that courts should not be permitted to review [the] determinations of governmental planning bodies under the guise of allowing them to be challenged in negligence suits; something more than a mere choice between conflicting opinions of experts is required before the [s]tate or one of its subdivisions may be charged with a failure to discharge its duty to plan highways for the safety of the traveling public." (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Donnelly v. Ives, supra, 159 Conn. at 168, 268 A.2d 406; see id., at 165 n. 2, 169, 268 A.2d 406 (affirming directed verdict in favor of highway commissioner with respect to highway design defect claim alleging poor highway layout and inadequate warning signs); see also Hoyt v. Danbury, supra, 69 Conn. at 351, 37 A. 1051 ("so long as the [sidewalk design] selected was an appropriate and lawful one [in that stairs were properly constructed and in a state of repair], [the
Under the theory of liability the plaintiff advocates in the present case, virtually every design defect claim pertaining directly to the layout of the road would be actionable under the defective highway statute.
For the reasons set forth herein, we conclude that the Appellate Court properly determined that the plaintiff's complaint fails to state a claim under § 13a-144. Therefore, the plaintiff's claim is barred by the doctrine of sovereign immunity and should have been dismissed by the trial court.
The judgment of the Appellate Court is affirmed.
In this opinion PALMER, ZARELLA, ROBINSON and VERTEFEUILLE, Js., concurred.
EVELEIGH, J., dissenting.
I respectfully dissent. The majority concludes that the Appellate Court properly determined that the claim made by the plaintiff, Ellen Stotler, administratrix of the estate of the decedent, Paul A. Stotler
"Trial courts addressing motions to dismiss for lack of subject matter jurisdiction pursuant to [Practice Book] § 10-31(a)(1) may encounter different situations, depending on the status of the record in the case. As summarized by a federal court discussing motions brought pursuant to the analogous federal rule, `[l]ack of subject matter jurisdiction may be found in any one of three instances: (1) the complaint alone; (2) the complaint supplemented by undisputed facts evidenced in the record; or (3) the complaint supplemented by undisputed facts plus the court's resolution of disputed facts.' Ramming v. United States, 281 F.3d 158, 161 (5th Cir.2001). Different rules and procedures will apply, depending on the state of the record at the time the motion is filed.
"When a trial court decides a jurisdictional question raised by a pretrial motion to dismiss on the basis of the complaint alone, `it must consider the allegations of the complaint in their most favorable light.... In this regard, a court must take the facts to be those alleged in the complaint, including those facts necessarily implied from the allegations, construing them in a manner most favorable to the pleader.'... Filippi v. Sullivan, [273 Conn. 1, 8, 866 A.2d 599 (2005)]; see also Shay v. Rossi, 253 Conn. 134, 140, 749 A.2d 1147 (2000), overruled in part by Miller v. Egan, 265 Conn. 301, 325, 828 A.2d 549 (2003); see, e.g., Federal Deposit Ins. Corp. v. Peabody, N.E., Inc., [239 Conn. 93, 99-100, 680 A.2d 1321 (1996)] (deciding jurisdictional question on pleadings alone).
"In contrast, if the complaint is supplemented by undisputed facts established by affidavits submitted in support of the motion to dismiss; Practice Book § 10-31(a); other types of undisputed evidence; see, e.g., Kozlowski v. Commissioner of Transportation, [274 Conn. 497, 504 n. 7, 876 A.2d 1148 (2005)] (photographs and deposition testimony); Ferreira v. Pringle, 255 Conn. 330, 336, 766 A.2d 400 (2001) (lease agreement); Shay v. Rossi, supra, 253 Conn. [at] 139 n. 7 [749 A.2d 1147] (official records of department of children and families); and/or public records of which judicial notice may be taken; Cox v. Aiken, [278 Conn. 204, 217, 897 A.2d 71 (2006)] (state employees' collective bargaining agreement); the trial court, in determining the jurisdictional issue, may consider these supplementary undisputed facts `and need not conclusively presume the validity of the allegations of the complaint.' Shay v. Rossi, supra [at], 140 [749 A.2d 1147]. Rather, those allegations are `tempered by the light shed on them by the [supplementary undisputed facts].' Id. [at], 141 [749 A.2d 1147]; see also Barde v. Board of Trustees, 207 Conn. 59, 62, 539 A.2d 1000 (1988). If affidavits and/or other evidence submitted in support of a defendant's
"Finally, where a jurisdictional determination is dependent on the resolution of a critical factual dispute, it cannot be decided on a motion to dismiss in the absence of an evidentiary hearing to establish jurisdictional facts. Gordon v. H.N.S. Management Co., 272 Conn. 81, 92, 861 A.2d 1160 (2004) (`[w]hen issues of fact are necessary to the determination of a court's jurisdiction... due process requires that a trial-like hearing be held, in which an opportunity is provided to present evidence and to cross-examine adverse witnesses'...); Schaghticoke Tribal Nation v. Harrison, 264 Conn. 829, 833, 826 A.2d 1102 (2003) (same). Likewise, if the question of jurisdiction is intertwined with the merits of the case, a court cannot resolve the jurisdictional question without a hearing to evaluate those merits. Lampasona v. Jacobs, 209 Conn. 724, 728, 553 A.2d 175 (`[i]n some cases ... it is necessary to examine the facts of the case to determine whether it is within a general class that the court has power to hear'), cert. denied, 492 U.S. 919, 109 S.Ct. 3244, 106 L.Ed.2d 590 (1989). An evidentiary hearing is necessary because `a court cannot make a critical factual [jurisdictional] finding based on memoranda and documents submitted by the parties.' Coughlin v. Waterbury, 61 Conn.App. 310, 315, 763 A.2d 1058 (2001)." (Emphasis omitted; footnotes omitted.) Conboy v. State, 292 Conn. 642, 650-54, 974 A.2d 669 (2009). Therefore, in view of the fact that this motion to dismiss was on the basis of the wording of the complaint, I view the allegations "in their most favorable light ... including those facts necessarily implied from the allegations, construing them in a manner most favorable to the pleader." (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Filippi v. Sullivan, supra, 273 Conn. at 8, 866 A.2d 599.
The defective condition involved in the present case is alleged to be a dangerously steep road surface that channels descending traffic into a major crossing intersection immediately at the bottom of the slope, together with the absence of an escape ramp to divert and contain vehicles encountering runaway conditions, and the absence of adequate warning signs to alert drivers to the severity of the conditions they were about to encounter before they were irrevocably committed to the descent. In my view, these allegations are similar to those alleged in Filippi, in which this court concluded that the trial court properly denied the defendant's motion to dismiss. In Filippi, the allegations were that the road contained a blind curve and inadequate warning signs to alert drivers of a graded blind curve concealing traffic that had stopped. In my view, the majority's reliance upon McIntosh v. Sullivan, 274 Conn. 262, 875 A.2d 459 (2005), is misplaced. In McIntosh, the plaintiff claimed that the defendant, the Commissioner of Transportation (commissioner), was liable for injuries he suffered when "rocks, boulders, ice
Unlike McIntosh, the present case alleges existing hazards arising from the roadway's design, layout and surface condition, which makes the case clearly actionable. "To prove a breach of statutory duty under this state's defective highway statutes, the plaintiff must prove by a preponderance of the evidence: (1) that the highway was defective as claimed; (2) that the [commissioner] actually knew of the particular defect or that, in the exercise of [his] supervision of highways in the city, [he] should have known of that defect; (3) that the [commissioner], having actual or constructive knowledge of this defect, failed to remedy it having had a reasonable time, under all the circumstances, to do so; and (4) that the defect must have been the sole proximate cause of the injuries and damages claimed, which means that the plaintiff must prove freedom from contributory negligence." (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Id., at 268, 875 A.2d 459. A highway defect is "[a]ny object in, upon, or near the traveled path, which would necessarily obstruct or hinder one in the use of the road for the purpose of traveling thereon, or which, from its nature and position, would be likely to produce that result...." (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Id., at 268-69, 875 A.2d 459. "[I]f there is a defective condition that is not in the roadway, it must be so direct a menace to travel over the way and so susceptible to protection and remedial measures which could be reasonably applied within the way that the failure to employ such measures would be regarded as a lack of reasonable repair." (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Id., at 269, 875 A.2d 459.
"[A] defect in the design of a highway generally is not actionable under § 13a-144. E.g., Donnelly v. Ives, [159 Conn. 163, 168, 268 A.2d 406 (1970)]. In Hoyt v. Danbury, [69 Conn. 341, 352, 37 A. 1051 (1897)], [however] we recognized a limited exception to that general rule." McIntosh v. Sullivan, supra, 274 Conn. at 280, 875 A.2d 459. This exception provides that, "notwithstanding the general rule that the state is not liable for damages sustained by a traveler due to a defect in a highway's design, the state nevertheless may be liable if such a defect gave rise to a hazard that otherwise would be actionable under § 13a-144." Id., at 271, 875 A.2d 459. "[A] design defect can be distinguished from a traditional highway defect claim only insofar as the former includes an allegation that the dangerous condition inhered in the highway's plan of design, that is, the defect was not created by some other external condition, such as a particular occurrence, like a storm, or normal wear and tear." Id., at 282, 875 A.2d 459. In other words, the highway, constructed according to a defective plan of design, is rendered "in such a defective condition as to have been out of repair from the beginning." (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Id., at 281, 875 A.2d 459. "In all other respects, however, a design defect
The doctrine first espoused in Hoyt was followed in Perrotti v. Bennett, 94 Conn. 533, 537-38, 109 A. 890 (1920), wherein the town of Hamden had installed a drainpipe twelve inches below the surface of a highway in accordance with a plan adopted for the purpose of construction. In accordance with the plan of design, twelve inches of gravel and sand were packed between the surface of the road and the drainpipe. The plaintiff was injured, several years after the drainpipe's construction beneath the road, when the roadway over the pipe collapsed under the weight of the plaintiff's truck. Id. In Perrotti, this court held the plaintiff's design defect claim to be actionable under the defective highway statute and reversed the judgment of the trial court dismissing the plaintiff's claim, reasoning that, "[w]henever the plan [of design] in its execution creates a nuisance, or causes direct injury to another, liability follows for the damage done.... If the plan [is] defective from the beginning, or if its defect originate[s] shortly after the completion of the improvement, and injury [is] ultimately necessarily the inevitable or probable result, the municipality will be liable. Clearly this is just." (Citations omitted.) Id., at 539-40, 109 A. 890. This court continued: "The finding is that the drain was no[t] properly protected, due to the covering of the roadway above it.... Obviously from the time the drain was laid it constituted a defect in the highway, whether this was due to the want of adequate covering, or to the character of the pipe, or both. Hoyt v. Danbury, [supra, 69 Conn. at 352, 37 A. 1051], expressly recognizes ... this situation as creating an exception to the general rule of nonliability...." (Emphasis added.) Perrotti v. Bennett, supra, at 541, 109 A. 890.
Read in the light most favorable to the plaintiff, the allegations contained in the complaint clearly place the claims within the purview of § 13a-144, as interpreted and applied in Hoyt and its progeny. The plan of design in Perrotti, pursuant to which the drainpipe that ultimately collapsed under the weight of passing trucks was built into the roadway, only twelve inches under its surface, made the roadway intrinsically defective from the outset as built. Similarly, the plan of design in the present case provided for the road, which has always been open to truck traffic, to be built on a steep downhill grade. This plan of design is alleged — and may be proved — by the plaintiff to have been defective
Furthermore, I respectfully disagree with the majority's overly narrow interpretation of what may constitute a design defect. The majority concludes that, because the downhill grade is not "an actionable hazard in the road that necessarily obstructed travel," the design of the highway in this case cannot be claimed to be an actionable defect. Although I agree with the majority that, ultimately, this doctrine's roots are planted in Hoyt, it is my opinion that Hoyt stands for the proposition that a road may be defectively designed when it is inherently unsafe. Indeed, the defect complained of in the present case is not so different from the situation that this court intimated would qualify as a design defect in Hoyt. It is, ultimately, a decision for the state, and not this court, to decide whether the best place for a road open to trucks is along the downslope of a mountain. Cf. Hoyt v. Danbury, supra, 69 Conn. at 351, 37 A. 1051. But having made that design decision, the state is required to implement it safely. A road with an extremely steep downhill grade that is traversed by large trucks, without warning signs and with no truck runoff is defective in the same way that a staircase with no railing is defective. To recognize that people will occasionally slip while descending stairs is to recognize reality. It is similarly uncontroversial to recognize that if people slip on a set of stairs which does not possess a railing, they will be without means through which they can stabilize themselves, and as a result they will be injured when they fall. Along those same lines, when trucks descend a mountain road with a steep declining grade, occasionally their brakes will fail.
I also find the case of Rusch v. Cox, 130 Conn. 26, 31 A.2d 457 (1943), instructive. In that case, the plaintiff, the administrator of the decedent's intestate estate, claimed that the death of the decedent had been caused by a defective highway. Id., at 28, 31 A.2d 457. In Rusch, the plaintiff's decedent had been killed when the car in which he was traveling as a passenger slammed into a wooden fence that lined the side of the highway. Id., at 29-30, 31 A.2d 457. At the point where the vehicle containing the decedent struck the fence, the fence suddenly and drastically narrowed the width of the shoulder of the highway from over eight feet to four feet in width. Id. The trial court concluded that the design of the fence created a dangerous and defective condition in the highway. Id., at 30, 31 A.2d 457. On appeal, this court determined that "[w]e may not hold that the conclusion of the
As a result, this case presents an entirely different question than did the rocky ledge high above the roadway in McIntosh. That claimed defect, by contrast, was not built into the roadway by design and, thus, was not an intrinsic defect to the road itself. On the other hand, the 10 percent downhill grade built into the relevant section of Route 44 has been claimed by the plaintiff to be an intrinsic defect in the design of the road. This 10 percent downhill grade may be shown to present an unacceptable risk of brake failure in trucks that travel over this section of road. Thus, similar to the plan in Perrotti that called for the drainpipe to be built only twelve inches under the road, the plan of design providing for the steep downhill grade in Route 44 could be considered defective because the execution of that plan created a nuisance from which "injury [was] ultimately necessarily the inevitable or probable result...." Perrotti v. Bennett, supra, 94 Conn. at 541, 109 A. 890.
Further, in Bovat v. Waterbury, 258 Conn. 574, 579, 783 A.2d 1001 (2001), this court affirmed a jury award for the plaintiff where the allegations were as follows: "(1) the defendant maintained the road without proper lighting; (2) the road was not reasonably safe for the uses or purposes intended; (3) the defendant maintained the road in a state of disrepair, causing it to be dangerous and hazardous; (4) the layout, grade or design of the road was improper; (5) the road was designed with an extremely sharp curve with a utility pole placed at the apex of the curve at the edge of the roadway, thereby creating a dangerous and hazardous condition; (6) the defendant failed to remedy the stated conditions when it was aware or should have been aware of them in the performance of routine inspections; and (7) the defendant failed to warn travelers of the dangerous and hazardous conditions." We also held that the city could be held liable for both a design defect and a defect in repair and maintenance. Id., at 585, 783 A.2d 1001. I fail to see any major distinction between Bovat and the present case. Certainly, the allegations in Bovat, which stated that the road was designed with an extremely sharp curve with a utility pole placed at the apex of the curve at the edge of the roadway, are virtually identical to the allegations in the present case which indicate that the road was designed with a very steep slope for trucks with an intersection located at the bottom of the hill. Further, the absence of warning signs, which is an allegation contained in this case, was also present in Bovat. Id. Therefore, I would conclude that the allegations are sufficient, when read in a light most favorable to the plaintiff, to defeat the motion to dismiss the complaint. Therefore, I respectfully dissent from the majority opinion.
In view of my position in part I of this dissent, unlike the majority and the Appellate Court, I also consider the defendant's claim that the highway's design was not, as a matter of law, the sole proximate cause of the accident and, therefore, the trial court improperly denied its motion for
Accordingly, I would conclude that the Appellate Court improperly reversed the judgment of the trial court denying the defendant's motion to dismiss this action for lack of subject matter jurisdiction, and that a genuine issue of material fact regarding the issue of sole proximate cause existed. Therefore, I respectfully dissent.
The trial court, Sheldon, J., denied the defendant's motion for summary judgment and the defendant appealed from that decision to the Appellate Court. The Appellate Court, however, declined to review the defendant's summary judgment claim in light of its threshold determination that the plaintiff's complaint should have been dismissed for failure to state a claim under § 13a-144. Stotler v. Dept. of Transportation, 142 Conn.App. 826, 842-43, 70 A.3d 114 (2013).
After we granted the plaintiff's petition for certification, the defendant raised as an alternative ground for affirmance that "the claimed highway defects were not, as a matter of law, the sole proximate causes of the subject accident." See Practice Book § 84-11. Because we conclude that the Appellate Court properly reversed the judgment of the trial court on the ground that the plaintiff's complaint failed to state a claim under § 13a-144, we do not reach the merits of the defendant's alternative ground for affirmance.
During oral argument before this court, the plaintiff averred that the alleged defect is comprised of a combination of factors, rather than the downhill grade standing alone:
"The Court: What is the highway defect?
"The Plaintiff's Counsel: A combination of things. Number one is Route 44 has a 10 percent grade.
"The Court: Is that a defect?
"The Plaintiff's Counsel: In part.
"The Court: How?
"The Plaintiff's Counsel: Because it does not incorporate the intrinsic portions of the defect with proper safety applications ... including a runaway ramp....
"The Court: So it's not the 10 percent grade; it's something in addition to the 10 percent grade?
"The Plaintiff's Counsel: Right, it's a package of facts that lead to the defect in this case. It's not one thing."
The court reasoned that if the plan of construction were so inadequate that the sidewalk was "out of repair from the beginning" — for instance, if the sidewalk "had been left with its grade broken simply by a four foot wall, without the provision of steps, or had the steps provided been insecure, or unguarded by a proper railing," then the plaintiff might have a viable claim. Id., at 352, 37 A. 1051. The trial court had found, however, that "the steps leading from one grade to the other were not defective, either in material or manner of construction, nor out of repair, at the time of the plaintiff's injury." Id. We concluded that, because the stairs were properly constructed and in good repair, the municipality's decision regarding the design of the walkway "was not subject to review by the courts." Id.; see id., at 351, 37 A. 1051 ("the Superior Court had the right to determine whether [the stairs] were properly constructed and in good repair, but not to pronounce the walk defective because [they were] not built on an unbroken grade"); id., at 352, 37 A. 1051 ("The use of steps in a city ... sidewalk is one of several permissible means of overcoming a steep grade.... It was for the municipal authorities to decide whether it was the best means of constructing this particular walk; and their decision was not subject to review by the courts." [Citation omitted.]).
While it is true that the court in Hoyt intimated that a sidewalk "unguarded by a proper railing" might be defective by design; id.; we do not agree with the dissent that "[a] road with an extremely steep downhill grade that is traversed by large trucks, without warning signs and with no truck runoff is defective in the same way that a staircase with no railing is defective." Whereas § 13a-144 expressly waives sovereign immunity for injuries arising from the "lack of any railing or fence on the ... part of such road which may be raised above the adjoining ground so as to be unsafe for travel," the statute does not similarly waive sovereign immunity for the failure to incorporate other safety measures, such as warning signs and a runaway truck ramp, into the roadway.
In this regard, we find the court's analysis in Hewison v. New Haven, 34 Conn. 136, 141-42 (1867), instructive: "It seems to have been a matter of doubt whether a bridge, or a part of the highway raised above the adjoining ground, although dangerous, was defective; and hence a railing was expressly required at such places, for the purpose of protecting the `safety of travelers.' Here then was one danger specially provided for. The legislature must have been aware that other dangers existed, or might exist, and yet they made no provision for them. What is the inference? Not only that they did not suppose that the language used was broad enough to embrace every possible danger, but also that they did not intend to make [the state] liable in cases not expressly provided for. We ought not therefore to extend this statute by construction." (Emphasis in original.) Because this court has expressly repudiated the notion that "everything which renders a highway unsafe makes it defective within the meaning of [§ 13a-144]"; id., at 141; we respectfully disagree with the dissent that Hoyt "stands for the proposition that a road may be defectively designed when it is inherently unsafe."
In the dissent's view, the allegations in the present case are similar to those in Filippi v. Sullivan, supra, 273 Conn. at 4-5 n. 3, 866 A.2d 599, wherein the claimed defect was insufficient warning signs alerting motorists to a lane closure along a stretch of highway with a graded blind curve that concealed stopped traffic. The issue in Filippi, however, was whether the Appellate Court had improperly concluded that the plaintiff's notice to the Commissioner of Transportation describing where the injury had occurred, as required by § 13a-144, was inadequate as a matter of law because it did not contain a reasonably definite description of the location of the injury. Id., at 7-8, 866 A.2d 599. Because the court in Filippi did not examine whether the allegations properly invoked the defective highway statute, we respectfully disagree with the dissent that Filippi is relevant to our analysis in the present case.
We find the trial court's analysis misguided in light of the governing legal principles. This court has consistently held that "[t]he state is not an insurer of the safety of travelers on the highways which it has a duty to repair. Thus, it is not bound to make the roads absolutely safe for travel.... Rather, the test is whether or not the state has exercised reasonable care to make and keep such roads in a reasonably safe condition for the reasonably prudent traveler." (Internal quotation marks omitted.) McIntosh v. Sullivan, supra, 274 Conn. at 269, 875 A.2d 459; see also Hewison v. New Haven, supra, 34 Conn. at 141 ("[w]e are not prepared to establish the doctrine that everything which renders the highway unsafe makes it defective within the meaning of this [highway defect] act").
The trial court's observation that the downhill grade built into the roadway "may be shown by the [plaintiff] to constitute such an intrinsic defect, which ... create[d] an unacceptable risk of brake failure" ignores that the defect must actually be in, upon, or near the roadbed so as to necessarily obstruct travel thereon. Indeed, as we stated in McIntosh v. Sullivan, supra, 274 Conn. at 289, 875 A.2d 459, "the legislature has elected to waive sovereign immunity with respect to the repair and maintenance of the state's highways only when the defective condition is in or so near the roadway that it actually obstructs travel and the Commissioner of Transportation has reasonable notice thereof."
Apart from the design of the road, that is, the steep downhill grade and lack of adequate safety measures, the plaintiff does not allege an actionable hazard in or near the road that necessarily obstructed travel thereon. Rather, the plaintiff claims that the state is liable for damages because it constructed a road across a steep mountain without certain identified safety measures and, in so doing, created an unreasonable risk of catastrophic brake failure. The plaintiff's claim falls squarely within our analysis in McIntosh barring such a claim. See id., at 288-89, 875 A.2d 459 ("[T]he highway defect statute does not give rise to a cause of action sounding in general negligence.... Although the rocks and debris that struck the plaintiff's automobile in the present case may have posed an unreasonable danger to travelers on the road, such that the [defendant Commissioner of Transportation's] failure to remove them arguably was negligent, any such negligence was manifestly insufficient to support a claim under the highway defect statute." [Citation omitted.]).
In Bovat, the plaintiff brought an action against the city of Waterbury under the municipal defective highway statute, General Statutes § 13a-149, for injuries he sustained when his car struck a utility pole that was located a short distance from the edge of the road. Bovat v. Waterbury, supra, 258 Conn. at 578, 783 A.2d 1001. The plaintiff alleged that the defendant's defective design and maintenance of the highway caused his injuries in that, inter alia, "the road was designed with an extremely sharp curve with a utility pole placed at the apex of the curve at the edge of the roadway, thereby creating a dangerous and hazardous condition...." Id., at 579, 783 A.2d 1001. The jury found in favor of the plaintiff with respect to both the design defect and improper maintenance claims, and the trial court rendered judgment in accordance with the verdict. This court affirmed the judgment of the trial court. Id., at 582, 602, 783 A.2d 1001.
In Federman, the plaintiff brought a highway defect claim for injuries she sustained when a sewer manhole cover in the street became unseated and struck the wheels of her car, causing her to crash into a telephone pole. Federman v. Stamford, supra, 118 Conn. at 428, 172 A. 853. The plaintiff alleged that the cover was defectively designed because "the cover was lower than the frame, which was set flush with the street [and] it fitted so loosely in the frame that it was easily dislodged...." Id. The jury rendered a verdict for the plaintiff, and the trial court denied the defendant city's motion to set aside the verdict. Id., at 430, 172 A. 853. This court affirmed the judgment of the trial court, concluding "the jury might have reasonably concluded that the cover created, from the moment of its installation, a condition rendering the street not reasonably safe for public travel and that from that moment the street was defective within the meaning of the statute." Id., at 429, 172 A. 853.
Bovat and Federman are distinguishable from the present case because the alleged defect in each case — the utility pole placed at the apex of the curve in Bovat, and the loosely fitting sewer manhole cover in Federman — was an object in or near the roadway that necessarily impeded travel thereon. In the present case, by contrast, the steep downhill grade, together with the absence of tangible safety measures, does not constitute an object or condition in or near the roadway that necessarily obstructed travel thereon. Accordingly, the plaintiff's claim must fail.
To the extent that the dissent relies upon Rusch v. Cox, 130 Conn. 26, 31 A.2d 457 (1943), we find that case factually distinguishable from the present case. In Rusch, the plaintiff, Andrew J. Rusch, administrator of the estate of Frederick A. Rusch (decedent), brought an action against the highway commissioner after the decedent was killed when the vehicle in which he was a passenger struck a wooden fence along the shoulder of the road. Id., at 29-30, 31 A.2d 457. At the point of the collision, the wooden fence narrowed the shoulder from approximately eight feet to four feet in width. Id., at 29, 31 A.2d 457. The trial court concluded that the sudden and substantial change in the position of the fence created a dangerous condition in the highway. Id., at 30, 31 A.2d 457. On appeal, this court affirmed the trial court's judgment. Id., at 36, 31 A.2d 457.
Rusch is distinguishable from the present case because the wooden fence that was constructed so as to narrow, unexpectedly, the shoulder from eight to four feet constituted "[an] object in, upon, or near the traveled path, which would necessarily obstruct or hinder one in the use of the road for the purpose of traveling thereon...." Hewison v. New Haven, supra, 34 Conn. at 142. Acknowledging Hewison, the trial court determined that the fence narrowing the shoulder constituted a condition near the road that rendered public travel thereon not reasonably safe. See Rusch v. Cox, 10 Conn.Sup. 521, 526 (1942) ("the highway was not reasonably safe.... [because] the layout was such as almost to amount to a trap for those, who in the night season, might drive upon the shoulder for emergency use"). No such condition existed in the present case. The dissent claims that Rusch is analogous to the present case because "[i]n both instances, the injury arose simply from the way in which the road was designed, not from some other condition or obstacle on the road itself." In Rusch, however, the defectively designed fence was itself an object that obstructed travel and, thus, it was an actionable defect despite the fact that the defect inhered in the highway's plan of design. In the present case, by contrast, the downhill slope in the absence of warning signs pertains solely to the design of the road.
"The Court: What design defect that applies directly to the road; a hairpin turn, an exit ramp that is too close to the entrance ramp coming the other way; what kind of design defect would not be actionable [under your theory] when [it] pertains directly to the road?
"The Plaintiff's Counsel: Maybe none, Your Honor."
