Curtis Hewitt was convicted by a jury on three counts of unlawful possession or receipt of firearms under 18 U.S.C. § 922(h)(1) and 18 U.S.C.App. § 1202(a) (1). He assigns numerous points of error, but we find it necessary to consider only one. We hold that, in the circumstances of this case, he was erroneously denied the opportunity to present evidence of his general character as a law-abiding citizen.

Hewitt chose not to testify in his own defense at his trial. After introducing the testimony of several eyewitnesses, the defense sought to present three character witnesses. Each of the three-a local sheriff's deputy, a local businessman, and the minister of the church Hewitt attended-would have given testimony on Hewitt's character for veracity and lawfulness.1 The trial judge refused to permit the introduction of any character testimony, apparently because Hewitt had not taken the stand and because his character for veracity was not independently in issue.2 Hewitt's counsel timely objected to this ruling.

Federal Rule of Evidence 4043 codifies the familiar rules governing the use of character evidence in criminal and civil trials. In general, the prosecution may not present evidence of the bad character of the accused unless and until the accused presents evidence of good character.4 The accused may always introduce evidence of "pertinent" traits of his character, however, thereby opening the door to cross-examination and rebuttal on those traits. See generally McCormick, Evidence § 191 (2d ed. 1972); 1 Wigmore, Evidence §§ 55-59 (3d ed. 1940); 2 J. Weinstein & M. Berger, Weinstein's Evidence P 404(05) (1980); 22 C. Wright & K. Graham, Federal Practice and Procedure § 5236 (1978). Under Rule 405, character traits may be proved by opinion testimony or testimony on the accused's reputation in the community for those traits. In some circumstances, evidence of good character may of itself create a reasonable doubt as to guilt, and the jury must be appropriately instructed. United States v. Callahan, 5 Cir. 1979, 588 F.2d 1078, 1083-86, cert. denied, 444 U.S. 826, 100 S. Ct. 49, 62 L. Ed. 2d 33; Edgington v. United States, 1896, 164 U.S. 361, 17 S. Ct. 72, 41 L. Ed. 467.

Under these time-honored principles, it is clear that the district court was correct in excluding the proffered evidence insofar as it related to Hewitt's character for "truth and veracity". Under Rule 404(a)(1), evidence may be offered only of "pertinent" traits, a term apparently synonymous with "relevant". See 22 C. Wright & K. Graham, § 5236, at 384. But not all criminal indictments impugn the defendant's truthfulness. That trait is only relevant in three situations. (1) The offense charged is crimen falsi ; i. e., a lie by the defendant is an element of the crime. See, e. g., Edgington v. United States, 1896, 164 U.S. 361, 363, 17 S. Ct. 72, 73, 41 L. Ed. 467, 470; Darland v. United States, 5 Cir. 1980, 626 F.2d 1235, 1237. (2) The defendant has testified on his own behalf and his credibility has been attacked. See, e. g., United States v. Jackson, 5 Cir. 1979, 588 F.2d 1046, 1055, cert. denied, 442 U.S. 941, 99 S. Ct. 2882, 61 L. Ed. 2d 310. (3) The truth of out-of-court statements made by the defendant has been attacked. See, e. g., United States v. Lechoco, D.C. Cir. 1976, 542 F.2d 84. Hewitt falls within none of these three categories. See generally 1 Wharton, Criminal Evidence § 229, at 493-94 (13th ed. 1972); McCormick, Evidence § 191, at 455 n.66 (2d ed. 1972).

To the extent, however, that the evidence proffered by Hewitt would establish his character as law-abiding citizen, it stands on a different footing. Such evidence is always relevant, see 1 Wigmore, Evidence § 55 (3d ed. 1940), and may be introduced whether or not the defendant takes the stand. See Darland v. United States, 5 Cir. 1980, 626 F.2d 1235, 1238. The leading case on character evidence in criminal trials, Michelson v. United States, 1948, 335 U.S. 469, 69 S. Ct. 213, 93 L. Ed. 168, as well as our recent decision in Darland, controlling here, both held that the defendant had a right to establish the character trait of being a "law abiding citizen".

In Michelson Justice Jackson pointed out: "(The) line of inquiry (into character) denied to the State is opened to the defendant because character is relevant to resolving probabilities of guilt. He may introduce affirmative testimony that the general estimate of his character is so favorable that the jury may infer that he would not be likely to commit the offense charged." 335 U.S. at 476, 69 S.Ct. at 219 (footnote omitted). The defendant, charged with offering a bribe to a federal revenue agent, was therefore entitled to show his character as a "law abiding citizen", even though that character was broader than the crime charged. 335 U.S. at 483, 69 S.Ct. at 222. Similarly, in Darland the defendant was convicted of robbery of a federally insured bank. He did not testify. This Court held that the trial court "correctly excluded evidence of defendant's reputation for truth and veracity and properly declined to charge the jury as to such evidence"; however, the trial court erred in excluding testimony as to the defendant's "reputation for honesty, for integrity, as a law-abiding citizen, and for peacefulness". 626 F.2d at 1238.

To be sure, neither Darland nor any other case of which we are aware has considered that the drafters of Rule 404(a)(1) might have intended to permit establishment only of specific character traits, such as truthfulness, and meant to preclude proof of such a general trait as lawfulness. In the preliminary draft of the Federal Rules of Evidence circulated by the Rules Advisory Committee in 1969, the predecessor of 404(a)(1) permitted the accused to offer "(e)vidence of his character or a trait of his character". Proposed Fed.R.Ev. 4-04(a)(1), 1969, 46 F.R.D. 161, 227. The version ultimately submitted to the Supreme Court by the Advisory Committee, and eventually adopted by Congress, amended this to permit evidence only of "trait(s)". Proposed Fed.R.Ev. 404(a)(1), 1971, 51 F.R.D. 315, 346. That this amendment was a deliberate attempt to limit character evidence to specific traits finds some support in the fourth paragraph of the Advisory Committee's Note to Rule 404, which states in relevant part: "The limitation to pertinent traits of character, rather than character generally, in paragraphs (1) and (2) (of 404(a)) is in accordance with the prevailing view. McCormick § 158, p. 334." By itself, this sentence is ambiguous, for it sets up a false dichotomy between "pertinent traits of character" and "character generally". A general trait of character, such as lawfulness, is no less pertinent for being general. But McCormick's treatise, cited in the Note, then as now finds that the "prevailing and more practical view" excludes proof of "general good character". McCormick, Evidence § 158, at 334 (1952); Id. § 191, at 453 (2d ed. 1972).

Still, when considered against the background of earlier law, we reject a construction of Rule 404(a)(1) that would preclude evidence of character for obedience to law. McCormick's treatise cites no relevant authority for the proposition that evidence of general traits of character should be excluded;5 indeed, Wigmore takes an opposing view. 1 Wigmore, Evidence § 59, at 462 (3d ed. 1940). Our own survey convinces us that the actual practice in the states has generally been to permit defendants to establish their character for lawfulness,6 and that the federal courts have unanimously assumed that to be the practice.7 Particularly since Rule 404(a)(1) was meant merely to codify existing practices, see United States v. Lechoco, D.C. Cir. 1976, 542 F.2d 84, 88 n.5, we are loath to assume that its drafters meant to overturn the narrow holding of Michelson without specifically so noting.

We are mindful of the Supreme Court's admonition that Courts of Appeals should disturb rulings by trial courts on character evidence "rarely and only on clear showing of prejudicial abuse of discretion". Michelson v. United States, 1948, 335 U.S. 469, 480, 69 S. Ct. 213, 221, 93 L. Ed. 168, 176; see also United States v. Davis, 5 Cir. 1977, 546 F.2d 583, cert. denied, 431 U.S. 906, 97 S. Ct. 1701, 52 L. Ed. 2d 391. After carefully examining the record, we hold that the trial court's refusal to permit the introduction of any character evidence by the defendant makes this such an occasion.

The judgment is REVERSED and the case is REMANDED for a new trial.