YOUNG, C.J.

We granted defendant's application for leave to appeal to determine whether defendant is entitled to a new trial because the circuit court closed the courtroom during voir dire in violation of defendant's constitutional rights.1 We hold that a defendant's right to a public trial is subject to the forfeiture rule articulated in People v. Carines2 and that the Court of Appeals erred by concluding that defendant's failure to assert his public trial right necessarily "forecloses the later grant of relief."3 In applying the Carines forfeiture rule to defendant's appeal, however, we conclude that defendant is not entitled to a new trial because he has not established that his forfeited claim of error "seriously affected the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings."4 We further conclude that defendant is not entitled to a new trial on the basis of ineffective assistance of counsel.5 Accordingly, we vacate the Court of Appeals' opinion to the extent that it is inconsistent with this opinion, affirm on alternative grounds the judgment of the Court of Appeals, and affirm defendant's convictions.

I. FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY

On the night of June 14, 2002, defendant, Joseph Lashawn Vaughn, parked his car on a Detroit street so that it partially blocked the driveway of Emmitt Smith, a retired police officer. Smith and a neighbor went over to the car, which defendant had exited, and began talking to a woman in the passenger seat of the car. Defendant then emerged from a nearby alley and began shooting at Smith and the neighbor. In response, Smith returned fire, although defendant ran from the scene. Police traced the parked vehicle to defendant.

Defendant was arrested and charged with possession of a firearm by a felon (felon-in-possession),6 possession of a firearm in the commission of a felony (felony-firearm),7 and two counts of assault with intent to murder.8 He proceeded to a jury trial in the Wayne Circuit Court. After the circuit court discussed a preliminary matter with counsel of record, a court officer closed the courtroom in preparation for voir dire:

Although the record is unclear regarding how many people were subject to the court's order, it is uncontested that the circuit court did not provide a reason for this closure. It is also uncontested that neither defendant nor his counsel objected to closure of the courtroom.

At the conclusion of defendant's trial, the jury found defendant guilty of felon-in-possession, felony-firearm, and two counts of assault with intent to commit great bodily harm less than murder.9 Defendant raised several claims of error on appeal, among them that the circuit court's closure of the courtroom during voir dire violated his Sixth Amendment right to a public trial and entitled him to a new trial. Alternatively, defendant claimed that his trial counsel's failure to object to the circuit court's closure of the courtroom constituted ineffective assistance of counsel and likewise entitled him to a new trial.

The Court of Appeals unanimously affirmed defendant's convictions.10 The Court of Appeals panel explained that while a defendant has "the right to have the courtroom open to the public during jury voir dire[,] ... this right is not self-executing [and] the defendant must timely assert the right."11 Accordingly, "the failure to timely assert the right to a public trial forecloses the later grant of relief."12 Because "defendant's trial counsel did not object to the trial court's decision to close the courtroom to the public during the selection of his jury," the courtroom's closure "does not warrant relief."13

The Court of Appeals also determined that defendant was not entitled to relief on the basis of ineffective assistance of counsel because he could not show "that his trial counsel's decision not to object fell below an objective standard of reasonableness under prevailing professional norms...."14 It explained that "[d]efendant's trial counsel might have reasonably concluded that proceeding with a jury voir dire that was closed to the public benefitted defendant" because a reasonable trial counsel might determine "that the potential jurors will be more forthcoming in their responses when the courtroom is closed, that the proceedings will be less likely to be tainted by outside influences, or ... [that] it will expedite the proceedings."15

This Court granted defendant's application for leave to appeal, limited to the following issues:

II. STANDARD OF REVIEW

Defendant claims that the circuit court violated his constitutional right to a public trial when it closed the courtroom during voir dire.17 Alternatively, defendant claims that his trial counsel's failure to object to the courtroom's closure rendered the assistance of his counsel constitutionally deficient.18 Whether the circuit court violated defendant's right to a public trial presents a question of constitutional law.19 Whether defendant was denied the effective assistance of counsel presents a mixed question of fact and constitutional law.20 We review for clear error a circuit court's findings of fact.21 We review de novo questions of constitutional law.22

III. RIGHT TO A PUBLIC TRIAL

The right to a public trial "has its roots in our English common law heritage."23 The Sixth Amendment of the United States Constitution expressly enumerates this right and states that a criminal defendant "shall enjoy the right to a... public trial...." The Sixth Amendment right to a public trial is incorporated to the states by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.24 Additionally, article 1, § 20 of the 1963 Michigan Constitution guarantees that a criminal defendant "shall have the right to a ... public trial...."25 That the right to a public trial also encompasses the right to public voir dire proceedings is "well settled."26

Although the Sixth Amendment right "is the right of the accused," a member of the public can invoke the right to a public trial under the First Amendment.27 "The extent to which the First and Sixth Amendment public trial rights are coextensive is an open question, and it is not necessary here to speculate whether or in what circumstances the reach or protections of one might be greater than the other."28 The existence of this implied First Amendment right enjoyed by members of the public precludes a criminal defendant from enjoying a constitutional right to a private trial, even if he waives his Sixth Amendment right to a public trial.29 Because this case involves "the accused who invoked his right to a public trial," albeit after the fact, this case proceeds solely under the Sixth Amendment.30

A defendant's Sixth Amendment right to a public trial is limited, and there are circumstances that allow the closure of a courtroom during any stage of a criminal proceeding, even over a defendant's objection:

If there is a timely assertion of the Sixth Amendment public trial right, the remedy for a violation must be "appropriate to the violation," although "the defendant should not be required to prove specific prejudice in order to obtain relief...."32

Although the existence of the Sixth Amendment right to a public trial during voir dire is not questioned, neither this Court nor the Supreme Court of the United States has squarely considered whether the right can be forfeited or waived by a defendant's failure to assert the right in a timely fashion. We turn now to this question.

A. PRESERVATION OF RIGHT TO A PUBLIC TRIAL

This Court "has long recognized the importance of preserving issues for appellate review."33 As a result, "[t]his Court disfavors consideration of unpreserved claims of error," even unpreserved claims of constitutional error.34 In People v. Carines, this Court adopted the forfeiture standard articulated by the Supreme Court of the United States in United States v. Olano.35 Like this Court's jurisprudence, Olano reiterated the importance of asserting a constitutional right in a timely manner:

Thus, the failure to assert a constitutional right ordinarily constitutes a forfeiture of that right.37 In analyzing a forfeited claim of error, a defendant is not entitled to relief unless he can establish (1) that the error occurred, (2) that the error was "plain," (3) that the error affected substantial rights, and (4) that the error either resulted in the conviction of an actually innocent defendant or seriously affected the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings.38

Both parties assert that this Court should not follow the Carines forfeiture rule when examining a defendant's Sixth Amendment right to a public trial. We turn first to defendant's claim that his Sixth Amendment public trial right is not a forfeitable right, but instead can only be abandoned with his personal and informed waiver of the right.

"What suffices for waiver depends on the nature of the right at issue."39 Although the violation of the right to a public trial is among the limited class of constitutional violations that are structural in nature,40 this fact alone does not require that the waiver of that right be personal and informed. Indeed, in Johnson v. United States, the Supreme Court of the United States rejected the argument that Olano does not apply to a claimed structural error because it had "no authority" to create "out of whole cloth" an exception to the traditional forfeiture analysis simply because the claimed error was structural.41

We likewise decline to create such an exception for the right to a public trial. While certain constitutional rights are preserved absent a personal waiver,42 those rights constitute a narrow class of foundational constitutional rights that "are of central importance to the quality of the guilt-determining process and the defendant's ability to participate in that process."43 Indeed, each of the foundational constitutional rights that are preserved absent a personal waiver necessarily implicates a defendant's other constitutional rights.44 For example, the purpose of the right to counsel "would be nullified by a determination that an accused's ignorant failure to claim his rights removes the protection of the Constitution"45 because it is counsel's responsibility to "protect an accused from conviction resulting from his own ignorance of his legal and constitutional rights...."46 Because the right to counsel "invokes, of itself, the protection of a trial court,"47 preservation of the right does not require an affirmative invocation. Similarly, a waiver of the right to plead not guilty "would shut off the defendant's constitutional right to confront and cross-examine the witnesses against him which he would have an opportunity to do under a plea of not guilty."48 The right to a public trial is "of a different order" because the violation of that right "does not necessarily affect qualitatively the guilt-determining process or the defendant's ability to participate in the process."49

Neither the Supreme Court of the United States nor this Court has held that the Sixth Amendment right to a public trial is so fundamental to the protection of a defendant's other constitutional rights that it falls within this exceedingly narrow class of rights that are placed outside the general preservation requirements and require a personal and informed waiver. Defendant cites two foreign appellate cases, State v. Njonge50 and Commonwealth v. Lavoie.51 Neither is persuasive. Njonge states that a criminal defendant may raise his public trial right "for the first time on appeal."52 However, the underlying caselaw — a plurality opinion of the Washington Supreme Court — merely explained that a defendant's failure to object does not "constitute a waiver of his right to a public trial."53 That statement did not address, much less compel, a personal and intelligent waiver.54 While Lavoie does stand for the proposition that a defendant's "knowing agreement is required for the valid waiver of the right to a public trial,"55 neither Lavoie nor the cases it cited examined the right within the framework of the other rights that require a personal and knowing waiver. Accordingly, we do not find it persuasive in explaining why the right to a public trial is within the limited class of constitutional rights that require a waiver to be personal and knowing.

Defendant also claims that a Sixth Amendment public trial right should be excepted from our traditional preservation rules because "the whole body politic," not just a criminal defendant, "suffers an actual injury" in the denial of the public trial right.56 Defendant notes language in this Court's opinion in Detroit Free Press v. Recorder's Court Judge that posits that a defendant "cannot waive his right to a public trial in absolute derogation of the public interest."57 From this language, defendant argues that a defendant need not invoke his right to a public trial right in order to preserve it.

Defendant's argument is problematic because it conflates his Sixth Amendment right to a public trial with the related, but distinct, First Amendment right that the public enjoys. It is true that a defendant cannot waive a public trial "in absolute derogation of the public interest."58 However, this "derogation of the public interest" only speaks to the fact that a defendant cannot waive the public's First Amendment right and demand a private trial. Thus, a defendant cannot affirmatively seek to exclude the public from his trial unless he can overcome the public's First Amendment right. That right exists separately from defendant's Sixth Amendment right, and its mere existence does not prevent this Court from enforcing its traditional rules of forfeiture and waiver when reviewing a defendant's claim that his Sixth Amendment right has been violated.

This Court's decision in Detroit Free Press failed to recognize the distinction between the separate but related First and Sixth Amendment rights. Detroit Free Press acknowledged that "[f]rom a literal standpoint, the Sixth Amendment provides the right to a public trial to `the accused,'"59 and it observed that "[t]he societal interests served by [the right to a public trial] are separate from and at times may be in opposition to the interests of the accused."60 However, it also suggested that these societal interests are encompassed in the Sixth Amendment rather than the First Amendment. For instance, it noted that "the Sixth Amendment has been held to implicate interests beyond those of the accused"61 and emphasized that the Sixth Amendment protections provided to the accused were not intended "to denigrate the interests of the public which are at the root of the public-trial guarantee."62

United States Supreme Court caselaw undermines the Detroit Free Press analysis to the extent that Detroit Free Press rooted the public's right to public trial proceedings in the Sixth Amendment instead of the First Amendment.63 The Detroit Free Press decision was issued shortly after the Supreme Court issued Richmond Newspapers, Inc. v. Virginia,64 which identified the public's right of access to trial proceedings as within the First Amendment.65 Subsequently, in Press-Enterprise I, the Court clarified that whether voir dire must be open "focuses on First ... Amendment values and the historical backdrop against which the First Amendment was enacted."66 Similarly, when a defendant "requested a closed preliminary hearing," the Court emphasized that "the right asserted here is that of the public under the First Amendment."67 Because a defendant's Sixth Amendment right exists separately from the public's First Amendment right, the existence of the public's First Amendment right simply has no bearing on whether to apply our forfeiture analysis to a defendant's Sixth Amendment claim, and the erroneous conflation of these rights by Detroit Free Press does not provide a basis for creating an exception to our traditional rules of forfeiture and waiver.68

Alternatively, the prosecution and the Attorney General (acting as amicus curiae) claim, and the Court of Appeals held, that a defendant's Sixth Amendment right to a public trial is not self-executing and, therefore, the failure to assert the right at the time of closure results in the waiver of that right.69 Indeed, many other jurisdictions have concluded that a defendant's public trial right is waived when it is not asserted contemporaneously with the courtroom's closure.70 To support the conclusion that the right is waived by silence, the prosecution points to language in Levine v. United States, wherein the Supreme Court of the United States observed:

Although Levine examined a defendant's right to open criminal contempt proceedings under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment,72 a subsequent Supreme Court opinion, Peretz v. United States, cited Levine in dictum for the proposition that the "failure to object to [the] closing of [the] courtroom is [a] waiver of [the] right to public trial."73

We decline to follow the dictum of the Supreme Court of the United States because it conflates the concepts of waiver and forfeiture that we have historically recognized in Michigan. Both this Court and the Supreme Court of the United States have distinguished the failure to assert a right — forfeiture — from the affirmative waiver of a right.74 Olano explained that "[w]aiver is different from forfeiture" in that waiver is "the `intentional relinquishment or abandonment of a known right.'"75 A defendant who waives a right extinguishes the underlying error and may not seek appellate review of a claimed violation of that right.76 "Mere forfeiture, on the other hand, does not extinguish an `error.'"77

The prosecution and the Attorney General claim that we should adopt an exception to this traditional definition of "forfeiture" because any result other than a waiver will encourage defense counsel to withhold objection as an appellate parachute. However, this argument fails to take into consideration the heightened standard of review already applied to forfeited claims of error. Carines requires a defendant who has forfeited his claim of error to prove (1) that the error occurred, (2) that the error was "plain," (3) that the error affected substantial rights, and (4) that the error either resulted in the conviction of an actually innocent defendant or seriously affected the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings.78 In other words, the prosecution and the Attorney General have not shown that the Carines forfeiture requirements permit an appellate parachute in this circumstance.79

Because neither party has persuasively shown that this Court should deviate from the general Carines rule regarding forfeited constitutional error, we hold that Carines applies to defendant's forfeited claim that the trial court violated his Sixth Amendment public trial right. The Court of Appeals erred by concluding that defendant's failure to assert his Sixth Amendment right to a public trial necessarily "forecloses the later grant of relief."80

B. APPLICATION

As stated, in order to receive relief on his forfeited claim of constitutional error, defendant must establish (1) that the error occurred, (2) that the error was "plain," (3) that the error affected substantial rights, and (4) that the error either resulted in the conviction of an actually innocent defendant or seriously affected the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings.81

The first two prongs of the analysis are straightforward. In this case, the circuit court ordered the courtroom closed before voir dire. The Supreme Court of the United States has stated that "`the party seeking to close the hearing must advance an overriding interest that is likely to be prejudiced....'"82 Because the circuit court failed to advance that type of interest before closing the courtroom, we conclude that an error occurred.83 We also conclude that the error was plain, that is, "clear or obvious."84 It is readily apparent from the record that the circuit court closed the courtroom during voir dire. It is also "well settled" that the Sixth Amendment right to a public trial extends to voir dire.85

The third Carines prong requires a defendant to show that the error "affected substantial rights."86 For this prong to be satisfied, Olano requires the error to have "affected the outcome of the ... proceedings."87 Similarly, this Court has stated that "the proper interpretation of the term `prejudice' in the context of issue preservation for plain error may be equated with the longstanding state precedent of outcome determination."88 Thus,

While the Supreme Court of the United States has specifically reserved judgment on whether an unpreserved structural error automatically affects a defendant's substantial rights,90 this Court's decision in People v. Duncan has explained that structural errors "are intrinsically harmful, without regard to their effect on the outcome...."91 Accordingly, our caselaw suggests that a plain structural error satisfies the third Carines prong.

Nevertheless, even if defendant can show that the error satisfied the first three Carines requirements, we "must exercise... discretion" and only grant defendant a new trial if the error "resulted in the conviction of an actually innocent defendant" or seriously affected the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings.92 Although denial of the right to a public trial is a structural error,93 it is still subject to this requirement.94 While "any error that is `structural' is likely to have an effect on the fairness, integrity or public reputation of judicial proceedings," the plain-error analysis requires us to "consider whether an error `seriously' affected those factors."95

The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit has recognized that "it does not follow that every temporary instance of unjustified exclusion of the public — no matter how brief or trivial, and no matter how inconsequential the proceedings that occurred during an unjustified closure — would require that a conviction be overturned."96 While the Second Circuit's analysis "does not dismiss a defendant's claim on the grounds that the defendant was guilty anyway or that he did not suffer `prejudice' or `specific injury,'" it examines "whether the actions of the court and the effect that they had on the conduct of the trial deprived the defendant — whether otherwise innocent or guilty — of the protections conferred by the Sixth Amendment."97 The goals sought by these protections include (1) ensuring a fair trial, (2) reminding the prosecution and court of their responsibility to the accused and the importance of their functions, (3) encouraging witnesses to come forward, and (4) discouraging perjury.98

In reviewing the closure of a courtroom during the first day of jury selection, the Second Circuit determined that the third and fourth protected values were "not implicated by voir dire because no witnesses testified."99 The Second Circuit then analyzed the remaining two protected values within the particular circumstances of the case before it and concluded that "limiting presence at the voir dire proceedings to only the attorneys, judge, defendant, and prospective jurors for one afternoon did not subvert these values."100

A review of the circuit court transcript during defendant's voir dire shows that both parties engaged in a vigorous voir dire process, that there were no objections to either party's peremptory challenges of potential jurors, and that each party expressed satisfaction with the ultimate jury chosen. Moreover, because "the venire is drawn from the public itself," individual veniremembers "remain public witnesses during much of the voir dire proceedings, listening to the court's questions and observing the conduct of counsel, until such time as they are chosen for the jury, disqualified, or excused."101 Thus, "the presence of the venire lessens the extent to which [the court's] closure implicates the defendant's public trial right because the venire, derived from and representative of the public, guarantees that the voir dire proceedings will be subject to a substantial degree of continued public review."102 Because the closure of the courtroom was limited to a vigorous voir dire process that ultimately yielded a jury that satisfied both parties, we cannot conclude that the closure "seriously affected the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings."103 Defendant is not entitled to a new trial on the basis of his forfeited claim of error.

IV. INEFFECTIVE ASSISTANCE OF COUNSEL

The Sixth Amendment also guarantees a criminal defendant's right "to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence."104 The Supreme Court of the United States has recognized that "`the right to counsel is the right to the effective assistance of counsel.'"105 The right to the effective assistance of counsel is incorporated to the states by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.106

In Strickland v. Washington, the Supreme Court of the United States stated that in order to receive a new trial on the basis of ineffective assistance of counsel, a defendant must establish that "counsel's representation fell below an objective standard of reasonableness"107 and that "there is a reasonable probability that, but for counsel's unprofessional errors, the result of the proceeding would have been different."108 Defendant claims that his counsel's failure to object to the courtroom's closure during voir dire entitles him to a new trial on the basis of ineffective assistance of counsel.

A. DEFICIENT PERFORMANCE PRONG

Defense counsel should be "strongly presumed to have rendered adequate assistance and made all significant decisions in the exercise of reasonable professional judgment."109 The inquiry into whether counsel's performance was reasonable is an objective one and requires the reviewing court to "determine whether, in light of all the circumstances, the identified acts or omissions were outside the wide range of professionally competent assistance."110 This standard requires a reviewing court "to affirmatively entertain the range of possible `reasons ... counsel may have had for proceeding as they did.'"111

The Court of Appeals panel did just that in reviewing defendant's claim. The panel reasoned that "[d]efendant's trial counsel might have reasonably concluded that proceeding with a jury voir dire that was closed to the public benefitted defendant" because "[r]easonable trial counsel might conclude that the potential jurors will be more forthcoming in their responses when the courtroom is closed, that the proceedings will be less likely to be tainted by outside influences, or might simply find the procedure preferable because it will expedite the proceedings."112

The Court of Appeals' conclusion is consistent with the conclusion of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit that when analyzing an ineffective assistance of counsel claim, "the strategic advantage that [defendant] received from the individual voir dire taking place in private cannot be ignored."113 Accordingly, we agree with the Court of Appeals' analysis and its conclusion that defendant is not entitled to relief on his ineffective assistance of counsel claim.

B. PREJUDICE PRONG

Even if defendant had shown that counsel's performance was objectively unreasonable, defendant cannot show that he is entitled to relief on the second Strickland prong, which requires this Court to determine whether "there is a reasonable probability that, but for counsel's unprofessional errors, the result of the proceeding would have been different."114

Defendant claims that a structural error automatically satisfies the second Strickland prong. However, Strickland and a companion case, United States v. Cronic, articulated only a narrow class of situations in which prejudice is presumed for ineffective assistance purposes: "when counsel was either totally absent, or prevented from assisting the accused during a critical stage of the proceeding"115 or "when counsel is burdened by an actual conflict of interest."116 Otherwise, "actual ineffectiveness claims alleging a deficiency in attorney performance are subject to a general requirement that the defendant affirmatively prove prejudice" because "[t]he government is not responsible for, and hence not able to prevent, attorney errors that will result in reversal of a conviction or sentence."117

Although this Court has not yet ruled on the issue, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit and the Georgia and Utah Supreme Courts have held that an ineffective assistance of counsel claim premised on a structural public trial right violation still requires a defendant to demonstrate actual prejudice.118 The Eleventh Circuit explained:

The Eleventh Circuit elaborated on the concept of prejudice in applying that requirement to the case before it, which involved an ineffective assistance of counsel claim premised on the failure to object when the trial judge closed the courtroom for the victim's testimony:

However, the United States Courts of Appeals for the First and Eighth Circuits have ruled that a structural error automatically satisfies the Strickland prejudice prong.121 The First Circuit criticized the Eleventh Circuit's reasoning, explaining that its actual prejudice requirement "is in tension with the Supreme Court's pronouncement that prejudice is presumed in cases of structural error not because the risk of prejudice is high, but because it is impossible to determine the extent of the prejudice."122

We conclude that the Eleventh Circuit's reasoning and conclusion is more persuasive. Without distinguishing a properly preserved structural error for which reversal is required from an error claimed as ineffective assistance of counsel, counsel can harbor error as an appellate parachute by failing to object to the closure of trial, thereby depriving the trial court of the opportunity to correct the error at the time it occurs. Further, because this is not one of the three circumstances in which the Supreme Court of the United States has held that trial counsel's ineffective assistance automatically results in Strickland prejudice, we conclude that an ineffective assistance of counsel claim premised on either counsel's waiver of or failure to object to the Sixth Amendment right to a public trial requires a showing of actual prejudice before the defendant is entitled to relief.

In this case, defendant does not claim that the courtroom's closure during voir dire affected the voir dire process and tainted the ultimate jury chosen. To the contrary, defense counsel actively participated in the voir dire process and expressed satisfaction with the composition of the jury and, thus, we must presume that the resulting jury was a fair and neutral fact-finder. Because defendant cannot show that "there is a reasonable probability that, but for counsel's unprofessional errors, the result of the proceeding would have been different,"123 he is not entitled to relief on his ineffective assistance of counsel claim.

V. CONCLUSION

While a criminal defendant has the constitutional right to a public trial, that right is forfeited when no objection is made at the time of the courtroom's closure to members of the public. As a forfeited claim of constitutional error, the defendant can obtain relief if he shows that the court's exclusion of members of the public during voir dire was "a plain error that affected substantial rights" and that he either "is actually innocent or the error seriously affected the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings."124 Because defendant has not made the required showing in this case, he is not entitled to a new trial on his forfeited claim of error. Nor is he entitled to a new trial on the basis of ineffective assistance of counsel because he has not shown that his counsel's performance was objectively unreasonable or that there was a reasonable probability that any error affected the proceeding's outcome. Accordingly, we vacate the Court of Appeals' opinion to the extent it is inconsistent with this opinion, affirm on alternative grounds the judgment of the Court of Appeals, and affirm defendant's convictions.125

MARKMAN, MARY BETH KELLY, and ZAHRA, JJ., concurred with YOUNG, C.J.

CAVANAGH, J. (concurring).

I concur in the majority's result only. I agree with the majority's conclusion that a violation of the right to a public trial, including the right to public voir dire, is structural error. Neder v. United States, 527 U.S. 1, 8, 119 S.Ct. 1827, 144 L.Ed.2d 35 (1999); Waller v. Georgia, 467 U.S. 39, 49-50, 104 S.Ct. 2210, 81 L.Ed.2d 31 (1984); Presley v. Georgia, 558 U.S. 209, 130 S.Ct. 721, 724, 175 L.Ed.2d 675 (2010).1 The majority also correctly notes that neither this Court nor the United States Supreme Court has directly considered whether a defendant can waive or forfeit the erroneous denial of the right to public voir dire. Finally, I agree with the majority's conclusion that the right to public voir dire is not subject to waiver by silence and that the Court of Appeals erred by concluding otherwise.

Although I agree with the majority that a structural error occurred in this case, I do not agree with the majority that Johnson v. United States, 520 U.S. 461, 117 S.Ct. 1544, 137 L.Ed.2d 718 (1997), definitively established that some structural errors may be subject to a forfeiture analysis. Johnson applied plain-error review to the petitioner's argument that a structural error had occurred; however, Johnson reserved judgment on whether the error at issue was actually structural in nature. Id. at 468-469, 117 S.Ct. 1544. Moreover, Neder, 527 U.S. at 8-10, 119 S.Ct. 1827, interpreted Johnson as holding that the error was not structural. Thus, I disagree with the majority that, by arguing in favor of automatic reversal, defendant in this case seeks an "exception" to the general rules for issue preservation. Ante at 297-98.

Additionally, the majority misapplies this Court's opinion in People v. Duncan, 462 Mich. 47, 610 N.W.2d 551 (2000), in analyzing whether the structural error in this case requires automatic reversal. I think that Duncan must be closely considered at this step of the analysis, particularly Duncan's statement that

In my view, Duncan accurately explains the "intrinsically harmful" nature of most structural errors and, accordingly, whenever a structural error occurs, I believe the potential need for automatic reversal should be given close consideration, even if the error is unpreserved. The majority concedes that Duncan held that "`[s]tructural errors ... are intrinsically harmful,'" but the majority claims that "this statement is consistent with applying our forfeiture rules...." Ante at 298 n. 42. However, the majority ignores that Duncan also explained that intrinsically harmful structural errors "require automatic reversal" when such an error "renders unfair or unreliable the determining of guilt or innocence." Duncan, 462 Mich. at 51, 610 N.W.2d 551 (emphasis added). Similarly, the United States Supreme Court has explained that, although rare, some errors are structural "and thus require[] automatic reversal." Washington v. Recuenco, 548 U.S. 212, 218, 126 S.Ct. 2546, 165 L.Ed.2d 466 (2006).2 Accordingly, because the error at issue in this case is structural, and structural errors are generally subject to automatic reversal, Neder, 527 U.S. at 8, 119 S.Ct. 1827; Washington, 548 U.S. at 218, 126 S.Ct. 2546, I believe that there must be an "exception" in order to apply plain-error review in this case.3

As the majority explains, denial of the right to public voir dire is a structural error, but the United States Supreme Court has not "squarely considered whether the right [to public voir dire] can be forfeited...." Ante at 296. Thus, today we are faced with an issue of first impression in our state and one that has not yet been directly addressed by the United States Supreme Court.

Considerable tension exists in the available caselaw regarding whether the denial of the right to a public trial requires automatic reversal. For example, several opinions from the United States Supreme Court appear to indicate that denial of the right to a public trial is structural error requiring automatic reversal. See, e.g., Washington, 548 U.S. at 218, 126 S.Ct. 2546 (offering "denial of public trial" as an example of "an error [that] is structural, and thus requires automatic reversal"), citing Waller, 467 U.S. 39, 104 S.Ct. 2210; and Neder, 527 U.S. at 8, 119 S.Ct. 1827 (same). On the other hand, as the majority explains, several opinions that consider more directly the issue of an unpreserved claim of the denial of the right to public voir dire have applied plain-error review. See, e.g., Barrows v. United States, 15 A.3d 673 (D.C., 2011). And in United States v. Agosto-Vega, 617 F.3d 541, 547-548 (C.A.1, 2010), the court addressed a preserved claim of the denial of the right to public voir dire and held that a new trial was required. What is particularly notable about Agosto-Vega is that the court did not engage in a harmless-error analysis but instead apparently took the view that denial of the right to public voir dire falls into the class of errors that defy harmless-error analysis. Id.; see Arizona v. Fulminante, 499 U.S. 279, 309-310, 111 S.Ct. 1246, 113 L.Ed.2d 302 (1991) (explaining that some errors "defy analysis by `harmless-error' standards"). Agosto-Vega's approach seems to be supported by United States v. Gonzalez-Lopez, 548 U.S. 140, 148-149, 126 S.Ct. 2557, 165 L.Ed.2d 409 (2006), in which the United States Supreme Court identified the denial of the right to a public trial as a "structural defect" that "def[ies] analysis by `harmless-error' standards" because a structural defect affects the "framework within which the trial proceeds" and is "not simply an error in the trial process itself." (Citation and quotation marks omitted.) Accordingly, I find it difficult to square the notion that the denial of public voir dire defies harmless-error standards and is thus subject to automatic reversal when preserved because the resulting harm is "necessarily unquantifiable and indeterminate," Sullivan v. Louisiana, 508 U.S. 275, 282, 113 S.Ct. 2078, 124 L.Ed.2d 182 (1993), but the same error is nevertheless subject to plain-error analysis when unpreserved.4

Despite this tension in the caselaw, I think that Duncan accurately tied the "intrinsically harmful" nature of structural errors to the effect of those errors on the reliability of the trial's determination of guilt or innocence. Duncan, 462 Mich. at 51-52, 610 N.W.2d 551. As the United States Supreme Court explained in Washington, structural errors generally require automatic reversal because a structural error "`necessarily render[s] a criminal trial fundamentally unfair or an unreliable vehicle for determining guilt or innocence.'" Washington, 548 U.S. at 218-219, 126 S.Ct. 2546, quoting Neder, 527 U.S. at 9, 119 S.Ct. 1827 (alteration in original). Accordingly, in the context of an unpreserved claim of a violation of the right to public voir dire, if it can be shown that the ultimate determination of guilt remains reliable, I agree with the majority that, under Michigan's current law, the error may be examined for plain error under People v. Carines, 460 Mich. 750, 597 N.W.2d 130 (1999),5 because "the remedy should be appropriate to the violation." Waller, 467 U.S. at 50, 104 S.Ct. 2210.6

As for the majority's application of the Carines plain-error factors, I agree that the first two prongs — that an error occurred and the error was plain — are clearly established in this case. As for the third prong, which requires a showing that the error "affected substantial rights," Carines, 460 Mich. at 763, 597 N.W.2d 130, I believe that Duncan does more than merely "suggest" that plain structural error is prejudicial. Although "this Court and the United States Supreme Court have left open the possibility that there is a category of errors for which the third prong of the plain-error standard is automatically met," People v. Shafier, 483 Mich. 205, 220 n. 15, 768 N.W.2d 305 (2009), denial of the right to a public trial is an error that must be presumed prejudicial because "a requirement that prejudice be shown `would in most cases deprive [the defendant] of the [public-trial] guarantee, for it would be difficult to envisage a case in which he would have evidence available of specific injury,'" Waller, 467 U.S. at 49 n. 9, 104 S.Ct. 2210, quoting United States ex rel. Bennett v. Rundle, 419 F.2d 599, 608 (C.A.3, 1969) (alterations in original). Accordingly, "the defendant should not be required to prove specific prejudice in order to obtain relief for a violation of the public-trial guarantee." Waller, 467 U.S. at 49, 104 S.Ct. 2210.

Although I disagree with the majority's equivocal stance on the third prong of the plain-error test with regard to the denial of the right to public voir dire, my primary quarrel with the majority opinion is with the route it takes to support the conclusion that the error did not seriously affect the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings. Carines, 460 Mich. at 763, 597 N.W.2d 130. I do not agree that the presence of the venire is a proper consideration in gauging the final prong of the plain-error analysis. Although the veniremembers are members of the public, if that fact is relevant to the plain-error analysis of the structural error at issue in this case, the right to public voir dire guaranteed by Presley, 558 U.S. at ___, 130 S.Ct. at 724, loses all meaning. Specifically, veniremembers will always be present during voir dire; therefore, under the majority's approach, the prosecution will always be able to argue that the error did not seriously affect the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings independent of the defendant's innocence. Carines, 460 Mich. at 763, 597 N.W.2d 130. Moreover,

Thus, although the majority correctly rejects the prosecution's argument that the right to public voir dire is subject to waiver, by considering the presence of the venire, the majority's analysis risks essentially adopting the very rule that it purports to reject because a defendant will never be able satisfy the requirements to overcome forfeiture under the plain-error analysis.7

The majority contends that my concerns are merely overwrought hand wringing because, under the majority's approach, the venire's presence is not "dispositive." Ante at 305 n. 102 (emphasis omitted). However, by considering the venire's presence at all, the majority places a heavy thumb on the delicate scales of justice. Indeed, because the venire will always be present during voir dire, the majority's approach will always weigh in favor of denying the defendant relief. Given the importance that the Framers placed on the right to a public trial, Waller, 467 U.S. at 49 n. 9, 104 S.Ct. 2210, I would not hamstring a defendant's efforts to vindicate that right by stacking the deck against the defendant before the analysis even begins.

I agree with the majority, however, that concerns regarding the fairness, integrity, and public reputation of the voir dire process under the facts of this particular case are lessened by the fact that the circuit court transcript reveals that "there were no objections to either party's peremptory challenges of potential jurors, and that each party expressed satisfaction with the ultimate jury chosen." Ante at 305. "The purpose of voir dire is to elicit enough information for development of a rational basis for excluding those who are not impartial from the jury.... It is the only mechanism, and the only safeguard a defendant has, for ensuring the right to an impartial jury." People v. Tyburski, 445 Mich. 606, 618, 518 N.W.2d 441 (1994) (lead opinion by MALLETT, J.). The public's involvement in the voir dire process assists in effectuating the purpose of voir dire, in part, because it allows the public to see that the defendant "is fairly dealt with and not unjustly condemned" via selection of an unbiased jury. Waller, 467 U.S. at 46, 104 S.Ct. 2210 (citations and quotation marks omitted). Moreover, "the presence of interested spectators may keep [the defendant's] triers keenly alive to a sense of their responsibility and to the importance of their functions...." Id. (citations and quotation marks omitted). Although the transcript showing "a vigorous voir dire process," ante at 305, does not satisfy these goals as well as the actual presence of observers, it does at least provide some assurance that the voir dire process served its purpose. Accordingly, when weighing the fourth plain-error prong in relation to the improper denial of the right to public voir dire, a court should rely most heavily on evidence indicating whether the purpose of voir dire was satisfied. If relevant evidence is not available, or if the court is left with serious concerns regarding whether the voir dire process served its purpose, the court should not hesitate to conclude that the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings were seriously affected and that a new trial is required.

MARILYN KELLY and HATHAWAY, JJ., concurred with CAVANAGH, J.