YOUNG, C.J.

Under the terms of the no-fault act,1 a person injured in a motor vehicle accident is entitled to recover personal protection insurance (PIP) benefits for "[a]llowable expenses consisting of all reasonable charges incurred for reasonably necessary products, services and accommodations for an injured person's care, recovery, or rehabilitation."2 This case requires this Court to consider whether the services provided by plaintiff's wife constituted services "for an injured person's care," whether the Court of Appeals properly remanded this case to the circuit court for findings of fact regarding the extent to which expenses for services for plaintiff's care were actually incurred, and whether the circuit court erred by awarding an hourly rate that corporate agencies charge for rendering services, rather than an hourly rate that individual caregivers receive for those services.

We hold that "allowable expenses" must be "for an injured person's care, recovery, or rehabilitation."3 Accordingly, a fact-finder must examine whether attendant care services are "necessitated by the injury sustained in the motor vehicle accident" before compensating an injured person for them.4 However, the services cannot simply be "`[o]rdinary household tasks,'" which are not for the injured person's care.5 Moreover, because an allowable expense consists of a "charge[]"6 that "`must be incurred,'"7 an injured person who seeks reimbursement for any attendant care services must prove by a preponderance of the evidence not only the amount and nature of the services rendered, but also the caregiver's expectation of compensation or reimbursement for providing the attendant care. Because the no-fault act does not create different standards depending on who provides the services, this requirement applies equally to services that a family member provides and services that an unrelated caregiver provides.

If the fact-finder concludes that a plaintiff incurred allowable expenses in receiving care from a family member, the fact-finder must also determine to what extent any claimed expense is a "reasonable charge[]."8 While it is appropriate for the fact-finder to consider hourly rates charged by individual caregivers when selling their services (whether to their employers that commercially provide those services or directly to injured persons), comparison of hourly rates charged by commercial caregiving agencies is far too attenuated from an individual's charge for the fact-finder simply to adopt that agency charge as an individual's reasonable charge.

In applying these principles of law to the facts of this case, we hold that the Court of Appeals correctly determined that plaintiff may recover "allowable expenses" to the extent that they encompass services that are reasonably necessary for plaintiff's care when the care is "related to [plaintiff's] injuries."9 However, because the circuit court erred by awarding damages for allowable expenses without requiring proof that the underlying charges were actually incurred, we agree with the decision of the Court of Appeals to remand this case to the circuit court for a determination whether charges for allowable expenses were actually incurred. Nevertheless, we also conclude that the Court of Appeals erred to the extent that its decision limited the scope of the determination on remand to the period after November 7, 2006. Instead, the circuit court must reexamine on remand the evidentiary proofs supporting the entire award. While we reject defendant's request for a verdict of no cause of action because there remain unresolved questions of fact, we caution the circuit court that a fact-finder can only award benefits that are proved to have been incurred. Finally, in determining the hourly rate for attendant care services, the circuit court clearly erred by ruling that plaintiff is entitled to an hourly rate of $40 for attendant care services because that rate is entirely inconsistent with the evidence of an individual's rate of compensation, including the compensation that Katherine Douglas, plaintiff's wife, actually received as an employee hired to care for plaintiff. We reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals on this issue. Therefore, we affirm in part, reverse in part, vacate the award of attendant care benefits, and remand this case to the circuit court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.

I. FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY

In 1996, plaintiff, James Douglas, sustained a severe closed-head brain injury when a hit-and-run motorist struck the bicycle he was riding. Plaintiff was hospitalized for approximately one month after the accident and received therapy and rehabilitation after his discharge. Because the driver of the motor vehicle that struck plaintiff could not be identified, plaintiff sought assignment of a first-party insurance provider through the Michigan Assigned Claims Facility.10 The facility assigned defendant, Allstate Insurance Company, to plaintiff's claim. In the three years after the accident, defendant paid plaintiff PIP benefits for his hospitalization, medical expenses, wage loss, and attendant care, as well as for replacement services, in accordance with the no-fault act. Defendant claims that plaintiff did not seek additional PIP benefits after 1999 until he filed the instant lawsuit in 2005.

In 1999, plaintiff began the first of a series of full-time jobs. However, he was unable to hold a job for very long, and he eventually stopped working. During this time, he twice attempted suicide. After the second suicide attempt, a 2005 letter written by plaintiff's psychiatrist indicated that plaintiff "requires further treatment" because he "continues to suffer from ill-effects as a result of his closed-head injury...." In particular, the psychiatrist emphasized that plaintiff suffered from short-term memory problems and impulsivity as a result of the accident and explained that plaintiff "should have the opportunity to obtain the care that will most likely restore him to a good level of functioning." Defendant claims that it did not receive this letter before plaintiff initiated this lawsuit.

Plaintiff filed the instant lawsuit on May 31, 2005, in the Washtenaw Circuit Court seeking compensation for unspecified PIP benefits that defendant "has refused or is expected to refuse to pay...."11 Defendant filed three successive dispositive motions, only the first of which was granted.12 Relevant here, the second motion for summary disposition claimed that attendant care was not reasonably necessary because none of plaintiff's medical providers had prescribed attendant care for plaintiff. The circuit court denied the motion without prejudice in advance of further discovery. The third motion for partial summary disposition claimed that plaintiff could not recover for attendant care services provided before November 7, 2006, because plaintiff's treating psychologist, Dr. Thomas Rosenbaum, neither authorized nor prescribed attendant care services before that date. In opposing the motion, plaintiff offered an affidavit from Dr. Rosenbaum, which stated that plaintiff "is in need of aide care during all waking hours" and that Katherine Douglas "has been providing her husband with aide care, while the two of them are together, since the motor vehicle accident." After hearing oral argument, the circuit court denied defendant's third motion, ruling that Dr. Rosenbaum's affidavit created a question of fact that precluded partial summary disposition.

The parties proceeded to a bench trial on the claim for attendant care services that Mrs. Douglas allegedly provided. Defendant's claims adjuster testified during plaintiff's case-in-chief as an adverse witness. This witness agreed with plaintiff's counsel that plaintiff "would have needed [attendant care] back when the lawsuit first began" in 2005 and that "it would be appropriate to pay Mrs. Douglas for some of [the] care that she provides... at home[.]" However, on direct examination by defendant's counsel, the claims adjuster testified that there was no evidence that any compensable care had actually been provided to plaintiff.

Katherine Douglas testified that when she was at home, her entire time was spent "babysitting" and "watching James," even while she was performing other household chores. She believed that her presence in the house kept plaintiff from being hospitalized or incarcerated. She also testified about a series of forms, each labeled "AFFIDAVIT OF ATTENDANT CARE SERVICES," all dated June 25, 2007, covering each month between November 2004 and June 2007. These forms totaled up the number of hours during which she claimed to have provided services and outlined the various tasks that she performed, including organizing her family's day-to-day life, cooking meals, undertaking daily chores, maintaining the family's house and yard, ordering and monitoring plaintiff's medications, communicating with health care providers and Social Security Administration officials, calling plaintiff from work to ensure plaintiff's safety, monitoring plaintiff's safety, and cueing or prompting various tasks for plaintiff to undertake. However, she admitted that the forms were all completed in June 2007, that she did not contemporaneously itemize the amount of time she spent on any particular item, and that in completing the forms, she went through household bills to reconstruct what had occurred in her life during the relevant period.

Dr. Rosenbaum testified that he began treating plaintiff on November 7, 2006, and recommended that Mrs. Douglas provide attendant care for all of plaintiff's waking hours,13 although in November 2007 he revised his recommendation to 40 hours of attendant care a week. Dr. Rosenbaum also testified that his company, TheraSupport, L.L.C., served as plaintiff's attendant care provider and that TheraSupport had employed Mrs. Douglas to provide her husband's attendant care. Although TheraSupport paid Mrs. Douglas $10 an hour for providing services to plaintiff, it billed plaintiff $40 an hour for those very services. Dr. Rosenbaum averred that defendant eventually paid all of TheraSupport's bills.

Defendant's medical expert, Dr. Charles Seigerman, testified that he conducted a battery of cognitive tests on plaintiff and concluded that two hours of attendant care services a day are needed to help plaintiff organize the logistics of his treatment and ensure that he takes his medicine. Dr. Seigerman also testified that an appropriate hourly rate for these services was "around $10.00 an hour," or "[p]erhaps a little higher," although he acknowledged on cross-examination that he was not an expert on the appropriate rate of compensation for this service.

The circuit court awarded PIP benefits to plaintiff, explaining that he "needs aide care for all of his waking hours." The circuit court calculated that plaintiff was entitled to a total of 67 hours a week of attendant care for the period between May 31, 2004, and November 1, 2007, and 40 hours a week after November 1, 2007.14 The court established a $40 hourly rate for those services. The judgment entered on November 18, 2009, and totaled $1,163,395.40, which included attorney fees, no-fault interest, costs, and judgment interest.

The Court of Appeals affirmed in part, reversed in part, and remanded for further proceedings. First, the panel rejected defendant's claim that the circuit court had erred by denying its final two motions for summary disposition. In particular, the panel concluded that Dr. Rosenbaum's affidavit created a question of fact regarding whether attendant care services were "reasonably necessary" for the period before Dr. Rosenbaum began treating plaintiff on November 7, 2006.15 The panel also rejected defendant's claim that the circuit court had erred by awarding plaintiff benefits for replacement services because the award "was not intended to compensate Katherine for her mere presence in the home," but instead was intended to compensate for "plaintiff['s] required supervision," and "Katherine was the appropriate person to provide it."16

The Court of Appeals reversed the circuit court's award, however, because "the trial evidence in this case did not reflect that Katherine maintained records of her claimed attendant care."17 Although Mrs. Douglas had submitted several forms, each labeled "AFFIDAVIT OF ATTENDANT CARE SERVICES," the panel concluded that when the descriptions on the forms had not been "left blank," they were "vague" and only constituted "an effort to reconstruct her time."18 Thus, the panel remanded for further proceedings "regarding the amount of incurred expenses for attendant care from November 7, 2006, to November 18, 2009," and to determine "whether Katherine reasonably expected compensation at the time of performance."19 Finally, the panel upheld the circuit court's $40 hourly rate because that rate "is supported by Rosenbaum's testimony regarding the rate charged by his TheraSupport program for attendant care and also the testimony of defendant's adjuster regarding rates charged by commercial agencies for home attendant care."20

This Court granted defendant's application for leave to appeal and ordered the parties to brief the following issues:

II. STANDARD OF REVIEW

This case involves the interpretation of the no-fault act. "Issues of statutory interpretation are questions of law that this Court reviews de novo."22 When interpreting a statute, we must "ascertain the legislative intent that may reasonably be inferred from the words expressed in the statute."23 This requires courts to consider "the plain meaning of the critical word or phrase as well as `its placement and purpose in the statutory scheme.'"24 If the statutory language is unambiguous, "the Legislature's intent is clear and judicial construction is neither necessary nor permitted."25

We review de novo the denial of a motion for summary disposition.26 A motion for summary disposition under MCR 2.116(C)(10) requires the reviewing court to consider "the pleadings, admissions, and other evidence submitted by the parties in the light most favorable to the nonmoving party. Summary disposition is appropriate if there is no genuine issue regarding any material fact and the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law."27

In civil actions tried without a jury, MCR 2.517(A)(1) requires the court to "find the facts specially, state separately its conclusions of law, and direct entry of the appropriate judgment." We review these findings of fact for clear error,28 which occurs when "`the reviewing court is left with a definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been made.'"29

III. ANALYSIS

A. LEGAL BACKGROUND OF THE NO-FAULT ACT

MCL 500.3105(1) establishes that a personal protection insurance provider is liable under the no-fault act "to pay benefits for accidental bodily injury arising out of the ownership, operation, maintenance or use of a motor vehicle as a motor vehicle, subject to the provisions of this chapter." Accordingly, MCL 500.3105(1) imposes two threshold causation requirements for PIP benefits:

MCL 500.3107(1) further limits what benefits are compensable as PIP benefits, allowing unlimited lifetime benefits for "allowable expenses" but limiting "ordinary and necessary services" to a three-year period after the accident and to a $20 daily limit:

This Court's decision in Johnson v. Recca clarified that the "ordinary and necessary services" contemplated in subsection (1)(c) — commonly referred to as "replacement services" — constitute a category of expenses distinct from the "allowable expenses" contemplated in subsection (1)(a).31

This case requires this Court to consider whether the specific services at issue here were "allowable expenses"32 or whether they were replacement services.33 The distinction between allowable expenses and replacement services is important in this case because the operation of the one-year-back rule, MCL 500.3145(1), prevents plaintiff from recovering benefits for otherwise allowable expenses incurred more than one year before the filing of the lawsuit. Thus, plaintiff cannot recover benefits for otherwise allowable expenses incurred before May 31, 2004, which was nearly eight years after plaintiff's July 1996 accident. Because recovery for replacement services is limited to those services provided in the first three years after the accident, plaintiff cannot recover any benefits for replacement services. Accordingly, in this case, plaintiff can only recover benefits for services to the extent that the services were allowable expenses within the meaning of MCL 500.3107(1)(a) and incurred after May 31, 2004. It is to the definition of "allowable expenses" that we now turn.

B. ALLOWABLE EXPENSES

MCL 500.3107(1)(a) defines "allowable expenses" as "all reasonable charges incurred for reasonably necessary products, services and accommodations for an injured person's care, recovery, or rehabilitation." We have recognized that the plain language of this provision imposes four requirements that a PIP claimant must prove before recovering benefits for allowable expenses: (1) the expense must be for an injured person's care, recovery, or rehabilitation, (2) the expense must be reasonably necessary, (3) the expense must be incurred, and (4) the charge must be reasonable.34 We will address these requirements seriatim as we apply them to the facts of this case.

1. SERVICES "FOR" AN INSURED'S CARE, RECOVERY, OR REHABILITATION

MCL 500.3107(1)(a) requires that allowable expenses must be "for an injured person's care, recovery, or rehabilitation." As we explained in Griffith v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Co., "expenses for `recovery' or `rehabilitation' are costs expended in order to bring an insured to a condition of health or ability sufficient to resume his preinjury life," while expenses for "care" "may not restore a person to his preinjury state."35 While the dictionary definition of "care" "can be broadly construed to encompass anything that is reasonably necessary to the provision of a person's protection or charge,"36 because MCL 500.3107(1)(a) "specifically limits compensation to charges for products or services that are reasonably necessary for an injured person's care, recovery, or rehabilitation[,]... [t]his context suggests that `care' must be related to the insured's injuries."37 In comparing the definition of "care" to the definitions of "recovery" and "rehabilitation," we concluded that

We reaffirm here Griffith's definition of "care" as it relates to the scope of allowable expenses: although services for an insured's care need not restore a person to his preinjury state, the services must be related to the insured's injuries to be considered allowable expenses.

In analyzing this requirement as applied to the particular services claimed in this case, we note that prior panels of the Court of Appeals examined the extent to which a family member's services can be considered allowable expenses under the no-fault act. In Visconti v. Detroit Automobile Inter-Insurance Exchange, the panel analogized no-fault benefits to worker's compensation benefits and ruled that "`[o]rdinary household tasks'" that a family member performs are not allowable expenses, but "`[s]erving meals in bed and bathing, dressing, and escorting a disabled person are not ordinary household tasks'"39 and can therefore be considered allowable expenses pursuant to MCL 500.3107.

A subsequent Court of Appeals panel applied Visconti and allowed the plaintiff to recover no-fault benefits when a family member was "required to serve his meals in bed, bathe him, escort him to the doctor's office, exercise him in conformity with his doctor's instructions, assist in formulating his diet, administer medication, and assist him with speech and associational therapy."40 The Court also held that, even though the family member who provided these services was not a licensed medical care provider, "[t]he statute does not require that these services be supplied by `trained medical personnel.'"41 In other words, while the no-fault act specifies and limits what types of expenses are compensable, it places no limitation on who may perform what is otherwise an allowable expense.

The statutory language of MCL 500.3107 confirms the distinction between a family member providing attendant care to an injured person — which is "for an injured person's care"42 — and a family member providing replacement services to benefit the entire household — which are "ordinary and necessary services" that replace services that the injured person would have performed "for the benefit of himself or herself or of his or her dependent."43 Accordingly, we reiterate this Court's recent holding in Johnson that replacement services as described in MCL 500.3107(1)(c) are distinct from allowable expenses under MCL 500.3107(1)(a).44 Allowable expenses cannot be for "ordinary and necessary services" because ordinary and necessary services are not "for an injured person's care, recovery, or rehabilitation."

In this case, defendant claims that a judgment of no cause of action should be entered because Mrs. Douglas did not perform any compensable allowable expenses, only replacement services, which are not compensable in this case because of the three-year time limit of MCL 500.3107(1)(c). We disagree with defendant's claim and conclude that defendant is not entitled to relief on this issue.

Defendant is correct that Mrs. Douglas's testimony and attendant care forms indicate that she provided many services that are properly considered replacement services, including daily organization of family life; preparation of family meals; yard, house, and car maintenance; and daily chores. These services are prototypical "ordinary and necessary" services that every Michigan household must undertake.45 While replacement services for the household might be necessitated by the injury if the injured person otherwise would have performed them himself, they are not for his care and therefore do not fall within the definition of allowable expenses. Nevertheless, the fact that Mrs. Douglas performed some replacement services does not preclude recovery for the allowable expenses that actually were incurred, including attendant care services. The fact that her attendant care forms list certain replacement services is not dispositive on this issue, especially given that other services listed on those forms can reasonably be considered attendant care services, including traveling to and communicating with plaintiff's medical providers and managing plaintiff's medication.

The circuit court ruled that Mrs. Douglas "is Plaintiff's caretaker and basically spends her free time making sure that Plaintiff is cared for, and does not harm himself as he tried to do in a suicide attempt." This factual finding is not clearly erroneous because it is consistent with Mrs. Douglas's testimony that she was "watching James" even while she was performing household chores by herself. Furthermore, it suggests that the circuit court adopted plaintiff's argument that Mrs. Douglas's supervision constituted attendant care services.

The Court of Appeals rejected defendant's claim that Mrs. Douglas only provided replacement services and compared the claimed supervision with this state's workers' compensation caselaw that allows "on-call" supervision,46 even when the care provider is pursuing other tasks while on call.47 We affirm the result of the Court of Appeals on this issue and hold that defendant is not entitled to a verdict of no cause of action on the basis of its claim that Mrs. Douglas only provided replacement services because there was testimony given at trial that at least some of the services she said she had provided were consistent with the requirement of MCL 500.3107(1)(a) that allowable expenses be for an injured person's care as necessitated by the injury sustained in the motor vehicle accident.48 For instance, even if Mrs. Douglas's claimed supervision of plaintiff does not restore plaintiff to his preinjury state, testimony given at trial indicates that arguably at least some of this claimed supervision was for plaintiff's care as necessitated by the injury sustained in the motor vehicle accident and not for ordinary and necessary services that every Michigan household must undertake. Accordingly, defendant is not entitled to relief on the claim that none of Mrs. Douglas's claimed services could be considered attendant care services within the meaning of MCL 500.3107(1)(a).

2. REASONABLY NECESSARY EXPENSES

MCL 500.3107(1)(a) also requires allowable expenses to be "reasonably necessary." In Krohn v. Home-Owners Insurance Co., this Court clarified that this requirement "must be assessed by using an objective standard."49 Defendant questions the reasonable necessity of attendant care services for the period before November 7, 2006, because there was no medical prescription for attendant care services before that date.

Before the circuit court's ruling on defendant's third motion for summary disposition, plaintiff offered the affidavit of Dr. Rosenbaum, who explained that plaintiff "is in need of [attendant] care during all waking hours" and that Mrs. Douglas had provided that care "since [the time of] the motor vehicle accident." The circuit court based its denial of defendant's motion in part on Dr. Rosenbaum's affidavit. In reviewing that decision, the Court of Appeals determined that "the affiant relied on the statements of the parties to determine what activity plaintiff's wife engaged in during the subject period and subsequently evaluated those activities and found them to meet the definition of attendant care."50 Thus, the panel held that the circuit court did not err by concluding that there were questions of fact sufficient to defeat defendant's motion for partial summary disposition. We agree with the Court of Appeals that questions of fact precluded summary disposition on this issue.

Moreover, we conclude that it was not clear error for the circuit court as fact-finder to conclude that attendant care services were, in fact, reasonably necessary for the period before November 7, 2006. There is a factual basis in the record to support the circuit court's conclusion: Dr. Rosenbaum testified at trial that, as early as 1997, plaintiff's doctors had recommended that plaintiff receive 24-hour supervision.51 Furthermore, defendant's claims adjuster agreed with the statement of plaintiff's counsel that, if plaintiff needed attendant care services at the time of trial, "he would have needed [those services] back when the lawsuit first began[.]" This evidence was sufficient for the circuit court to conclude that because attendant care services were reasonably necessary after November 7, 2006 (a point that defendant does not dispute), they were also reasonably necessary before that date. As a result, defendant has not established that the circuit court clearly erred by concluding that plaintiff proved this element of the allowable expenses analysis.

3. INCURRED EXPENSES

MCL 500.3107(1)(a) also limits allowable expenses to "charges incurred." That is, even if a claimant can show that services were for his care and were reasonably necessary, an insurer "is not obliged to pay any amount except upon submission of evidence that services were actually rendered and of the actual cost expended."52 Because an insurer's liability

This Court has defined "incur" as it appears in MCL 500.3107(1)(a) as "`[t]o become liable or subject to, [especially] because of one's own actions.'"54 Similarly, a "charge" is a "[p]ecuniary burden, cost" or "[a] price required or demanded for service rendered or goods supplied."55 Thus, the statutory requirement that "charges" be "incurred" requires some degree of liability that exists as a result of the insured's actually having received the underlying goods or services. Put differently, because a charge is something "required or demanded," the caregiver must have an expectation that she be compensated because there is no "charge[] incurred" when a good or service is provided with no expectation of compensation from the insurer.56 Accordingly, this Court noted in Burris v. Allstate Insurance Co. that caregivers must have "expected compensation for their services."57 Without the expectation of compensation, "the evidence fail[s] to establish that the plaintiff `incurred' attendant-care expenses."58

The fact that charges have been incurred can be shown "by various means," including "a contract for products and services" or "a paid bill."59 The requirement of proof is not extinguished simply because a family member, rather than a commercial health care provider, acts as a claimant's caregiver. Indeed, MCL 500.3107(1)(a) does not distinguish a "charge[] incurred" when a family member provides care from one incurred when an unrelated medical professional provides care.60 As a result, there is only one evidentiary standard to determine whether expenses were incurred regardless of who provided the underlying services. Any insured who incurs charges for services must present proof of those charges in order to establish, by a preponderance of evidence, that he is entitled to PIP benefits.61

This evidentiary requirement is most easily satisfied when an insured or a caregiver submits itemized statements, bills, contracts, or logs listing the nature of services provided with sufficient detail for the insurer to determine whether they are compensable.62 Indeed, the best way of proving that a caregiver actually "expected compensation for [her] services" at the time the services were rendered63 is for the caregiver to document the incurred charges contemporaneously with providing them — whether in a formal bill or in another memorialized statement that logs with specificity the nature and amount of services rendered — and submit that documentation to the insurer within a reasonable amount of time after the services were rendered. While no statutory provision requires that this method be used to establish entitlement to allowable expenses — a caregiver's testimony can allow a fact-finder to conclude that expenses have been incurred — a claimant's failure to request reimbursement for allowable expenses in a timely fashion runs the risk that the one-year-back rule will limit the claimant's entitlement to benefits, as occurred here when plaintiff commenced a lawsuit to recover allowable expenses that were alleged to have been incurred more than one year earlier.64 Moreover, once a claimant seeks payment from the insurer for providing ongoing services, the insurer can request regular statements logging the nature and amount of those services to ensure that the claimed services are compensable.

The problem of a caregiver's failure to provide contemporaneous documentary evidence of allowable expenses is aptly illustrated in this case, in which Mrs. Douglas submitted documents constructed in one day as proof of services rendered over the course of approximately three years. The lack of contemporaneous documentation implicates her credibility regarding whether the services were actually rendered in the manner documented.65 Moreover, this failure to provide contemporaneous documentation may also be relevant to the fact-finder's determination whether Mrs. Douglas actually expected payment for providing those services. In this case, the circuit court failed to make a finding regarding whether the charges were actually incurred, including whether Mrs. Douglas expected compensation or reimbursement at the time she provided the services. Nevertheless, the circuit court awarded plaintiff attendant care benefits for 67 hours a week for the period between May 31, 2004, and November 1, 2007, and 40 hours a week for the period between November 1, 2007, and November 18, 2009. The Court of Appeals remanded this case to the circuit court and allowed the circuit court to "take additional testimony, if necessary, and amend its findings or render new findings, and amend the judgment accordingly."66 The panel identified three problems with the circuit court's award of attendant care benefits: the circuit court "clearly erred in awarding attendant care benefits to plaintiff without requiring sufficient documentation to support the daily or weekly hours underlying the award";67 it erred by failing to consider "whether [Mrs. Douglas] reasonably expected compensation at the time of performance";68 and it erred by failing to account for payments made to Dr. Rosenbaum's agency, TheraSupport, which employed Mrs. Douglas as plaintiff's attendant care provider.69

We underscore the importance of the proofs necessary to establish entitlement to benefits. The circuit court issued a judgment in favor of plaintiff without finding that the expenses were actually incurred given that its determination of the number of hours to award plaintiff had no discernible basis in the evidence presented at trial and did not examine whether Mrs. Douglas had the expectation of payment for her services. While it awarded plaintiff benefits for 40 hours a week of attendant care services for the period beginning November 1, 2007, in accord with Dr. Rosenbaum's prescription, there is no basis for its findings that Mrs. Douglas actually provided 40 hours of care each week during that period. Indeed, because she was unavailable to provide services during her working hours, there is no basis for compensating her for any hours that she spent working outside the home.70 Similarly, the award for the period before November 1, 2007, was made with no discernible basis in the record. Therefore, the Court of Appeals properly recognized that that award could not be sustained and appropriately remanded this case for findings of fact based on the evidence.71

Although the Court of Appeals established the scope of the determination of remand to the period after November 7, 2006, we direct the circuit court to make findings of fact as they pertain to the entire period of the lawsuit. The Court of Appeals did not explain how it decided that only the period after November 7, 2006, should be considered on remand, and more important, there is nothing in the Court of Appeals' opinion or in the circuit court record that indicates that the circuit court's award for the period between May 31, 2004, and November 7, 2006, falls outside the ruling of the Court of Appeals that the circuit court "award[ed] attendant care benefits to plaintiff without requiring sufficient documentation to support the daily or weekly hours underlying the award."72 Accordingly, we vacate the entire award of attendant care benefits and clarify that on remand the circuit court must examine the entire period to determine whether plaintiff submitted sufficient proofs that allowable expenses were incurred but not reimbursed.73

4. REASONABLE CHARGE FOR EXPENSES

Once a fact-finder has concluded that a plaintiff incurred allowable expenses in receiving care from a family member, the fact-finder must determine whether the charge is "reasonable."74 In this case, the circuit court awarded attendant care benefits to plaintiff at a $40 hourly rate. Although the circuit court did not explicitly state the basis of its hourly rate, the Court of Appeals identified two pieces of evidence adduced at trial as justification for the circuit court's ruling: Dr. Rosenbaum's testimony that his company charges $40 an hour for attendant care and the testimony of defendant's adjuster regarding the rates that commercial agencies charge for attendant care services. We conclude that this testimony regarding the rates that commercial agencies charge is based on factors too attenuated from those underlying the rate charged for an individual's provision of attendant care services to be adopted as an individual's reasonable charge for attendant care services. This is a particularly erroneous circuit court finding given that Mrs. Douglas was actually paid $10 an hour by Dr. Rosenbaum's company for providing attendant care services to her husband. Why the circuit court believed that the commercial rate Dr. Rosenbaum charged was more relevant than what he paid Mrs. Douglas is unstated and unjustified on this record. Accordingly, the circuit court's $40 hourly rate is clearly erroneous.

Although this Court has not ruled on the issue, the Court of Appeals in Bonkowski v. Allstate Insurance Co. stated that a commercial agency's rate for attendant care services is irrelevant to the fact-finder's determination of what constitutes a reasonable rate for a family member's provision of those services. Then Judge ZAHRA, writing for the court, noted that "[i]n determining reasonable compensation for an unlicensed person who provides health care services, a fact-finder may consider the compensation paid to licensed health care professionals who provide similar services."75 The opinion went on to state that the fact-finder's "focus should be on the compensation provided to the person providing the services, not the charge associated by an agency that hires health care professionals to provide such services."76

The compensation actually paid to caregivers who provide similar services is necessarily relevant to the fact-finder's determination of a reasonable charge for a family member's provision of these services because it helps the fact-finder to determine what the caregivers could receive on the open market. While a commercial agency's fee incorporates this relevant piece of data — the compensation it pays to its caregivers — it also incorporates additional costs into its charge that family members who provide services do not incur, particularly the overhead costs inherent in the agency's provision of services. Thus, the total agency rate is too attenuated from the particular component of the agency rate that the fact-finder must determine in the instant case — "the compensation provided to the person providing the services...."77

While we do not adopt the reasoning in Bonkowski in its entirety, we agree with Bonkowski that the fact-finder's focus must be on an individual's compensation. Accordingly, we hold that a fact-finder may base the hourly rate for a family member's provision of attendant care services on what health care agencies compensate their employees, but what health care agencies charge their patients is too attenuated from the appropriate hourly rate for a family member's services to be controlling.78 Rather, the fact-finder must determine what is a reasonable charge for an individual's provision of services, not an agency's. While an agency rate might bear some relation to an individual's rate, it cannot be uncritically adopted as an individual's rate in the absence of specific circumstances that warrant such a rate-for instance, when the individual caregiver has overhead and administrative costs similar to those of a commercial agency.79

This case does not reflect such circumstances. Rather, there is undisputed testimony that Mrs. Douglas actually received $10 an hour in providing attendant care services to plaintiff during the time she served as Dr. Rosenbaum's employee. Because this figure is the rate she actually received for providing attendant care services, it is highly probative of what constitutes a reasonable charge for her services. Therefore, we agree with defendant that the circuit court clearly erred by ruling that plaintiff is entitled to a $40 hourly rate for Mrs. Douglas's attendant care services. The only evidentiary basis for that figure is the rate that commercial agencies charge for attendant care services, and that rate is far too attenuated from an individual caregiver's actual rate of compensation to serve as the sole basis for the award of benefits in these circumstances.80 Therefore, if the circuit court concludes on remand that plaintiff has proved his entitlement to benefits for Mrs. Douglas's services, the circuit court, as fact-finder, must establish a new hourly rate based on an individual caregiver's hourly rate.

IV. CONCLUSION

Today, we reaffirm that MCL 500.3107(1)(a) imposes four requirements that an insured must prove before recovering PIP benefits for allowable expenses: (1) the expense must be for an injured person's care, recovery, or rehabilitation, (2) the expense must be reasonably necessary, (3) the expense must be incurred, and (4) the charge must be reasonable.81 Allowable expenses are distinguished from replacement services in that allowable expenses are for the insured's care as it "relate[s] to the insured's injuries."82

Defendant is not entitled to relief on its claim that Mrs. Douglas provided only replacement services, not allowable expenses, because the circuit court did not clearly err by ruling that Mrs. Douglas is plaintiff's caretaker. Defendant is also not entitled to relief on its claim that plaintiff's attendant care was not reasonably necessary in the absence of a specific prescription for attendant care services because the testimony of Dr. Rosenbaum and defendant's claims adjuster provided a factual basis for the reasonable necessity of those services at all times relevant in this case.

We affirm the Court of Appeals' decision to remand this case for further proceedings, but we hold that the consideration on remand must encompass the entire period for which charges are claimed. We also emphasize the necessity that the circuit court, as the fact-finder, must base its ruling on proofs that show the extent to which Mrs. Douglas actually provided compensable attendant care services. Therefore, on remand, the circuit court must apply the standard of proof outlined in this opinion to determine whether plaintiff has proved that "charges" were "incurred" for his care. In particular, the circuit court must determine the extent to which plaintiff has proved the number of hours that Mrs. Douglas actually provided attendant care services and whether she actually expected compensation for those services. Finally, we reverse the Court of Appeals' decision regarding the circuit court's assessment of an hourly rate of $40 and conclude that that hourly rate is clearly erroneous because it is unrelated to an individual caregiver's hourly rate. While we do not establish an hourly rate in this case, the circuit court must establish a rate that is consistent with an individual caregiver's rate for services, rather than a commercial agency's rate.

Affirmed in part, reversed in part, award of attendant care benefits vacated and case remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.

MARKMAN, and MARY BETH KELLY, and ZAHRA, JJ., concurred with YOUNG, C.J.

CAVANAGH, J. (dissenting).

I dissent from the majority's erroneous interpretation of the phrase "charges incurred" in MCL 500.3107(1)(a) and the resulting creation of evidentiary requirements that lack any basis in the statutory language. Likewise, I dissent from the majority's misguided limitation on the scope of evidence that may be considered when determining whether a charge is "reasonable" under MCL 500.3107(1)(a).1

Although the rules of statutory interpretation are well established, a brief review is warranted, given the majority's failure to adhere to these principles. This Court's primary goal is to "discern and give effect to the intent of the Legislature." Sun Valley Foods Co. v. Ward, 460 Mich. 230, 236, 596 N.W.2d 119 (1999). "The words of a statute provide the most reliable evidence of its intent...." Id. (quotation marks and citation omitted). When the language of a statute is unambiguous, "the Legislature must have intended the meaning clearly expressed, and the statute must be enforced as written." Id. Accordingly, "[n]o further judicial construction is required or permitted." Id.

I. "CHARGES INCURRED"

Under MCL 500.3107(1)(a), personal protection insurance (PIP) benefits include "allowable expenses." The statute goes on to explain that an "allowable expense" consists of, among other things, "charges incurred" for certain qualifying products or services. From the words "charges incurred," the majority mysteriously divines new evidentiary requirements that an insured must satisfy in order to obtain PIP benefits. Specifically, the majority determines that, in order to show that charges were incurred, an insured must establish (1) that the caregiver expected compensation for the services rendered, see ante at 490, and (2) that the caregiver's expectation of payment arose "at the time [the caregiver] provided the services," see ante at 490.2 Neither of the majority's newly created requirements are supported by the statutory language at issue.

A. CAREGIVER'S EXPECTATION OF COMPENSATION

I disagree with the majority's conclusion that MCL 500.3107(1)(a) requires a showing that the caregiver expected compensation. Rather, I continue to believe that the caregiver's expectation of payment is irrelevant because the obligation to pay "charges incurred" under MCL 500.3107(1)(a) lies with the insurer rather than the insured. Burris v. Allstate Ins. Co., 480 Mich. 1081, 1088-1089, 745 N.W.2d 101 (2008) (WEAVER, J., dissenting). I also disagree with the majority's reliance on the definition of "incur" that was adopted in Proudfoot v. State Farm Mut. Ins. Co., 469 Mich. 476, 673 N.W.2d 739 (2003), because, as Justice WEAVER explained in her Burris dissent, Proudfoot's definition of "incur" was limited to the facts of that case, in which the plaintiff sought advance payment for future expenses. Burris, 480 Mich. at 1088, 745 N.W.2d 101 (WEAVER, J., dissenting). Accordingly, in Proudfoot, no one had incurred an expense because no service had been provided, and an insurer "is not obligated to pay any amount except upon submission of evidence that services were actually rendered...." Manley v. Detroit Auto. Inter-Ins. Exch., 425 Mich. 140, 159, 388 N.W.2d 216 (1986). In this case, however, plaintiff seeks benefits for past expenses resulting from services that have already been provided. Accordingly, as long as the services were actually rendered and reasonably necessary and the amount of the charges was reasonable, defendant, as the insurer, has incurred the charges because of its statutory obligation to provide PIP benefits under MCL 500.3107(1). Unlike the majority's interpretation, Justice WEAVER'S approach in Burris is consistent with the Legislature's intent that the no-fault act be construed liberally in favor of the insured. Turner v. Auto Club Ins. Ass'n, 448 Mich. 22, 28, 528 N.W.2d 681 (1995).

In addition, I disagree with the majority's effort to further hamstring insureds' ability to recover PIP benefits to which they are entitled by imposing burdensome and statutorily unsupported preferences for specific documentary evidence. See ante at 489 (stating that the "best way of proving" that a caregiver expected payment is a "formal bill" or "memorialized statement").3 To begin with, the majority's determination that certain forms of evidence are always more persuasive than others is faulty because it is premised on the majority's conclusion that the caregiver must expect compensation. However, even accepting arguendo that compensation must be expected in order for a charge to be incurred for purposes of MCL 500.3107(1)(a), nothing in the statutory language supports the majority's gradation of the persuasiveness of various forms of evidence or the majority's resulting preference for a formal bill or memorialized statement. Particularly telling is the majority's failure to cite any authority in support of this preference for certain types of evidence. Indeed, the majority flatly admits that "no statutory provision requires" what the majority considers to be the "best" evidence. Ante at 489. Accordingly, although I agree that "itemized statements, bills, contracts, or logs listing the nature of services provided," ante at 489, would be more than enough to establish entitlement to PIP benefits, simple testimony or any other form of admissible evidence should also be sufficient.4 See, generally, MRE 402 (providing that "[a]ll relevant evidence is admissible ...") and MRE 401 (defining "relevant evidence" as "evidence having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to the determination of the action more probable or less probable than it would be without the evidence").

Although the majority may be correct that certain types of evidence may be more persuasive under the specific circumstances of a particular case, by discussing the persuasiveness of various forms of evidence in absolutes, the majority invades the province of the fact-finder. See People v. Wolfe, 440 Mich. 508, 514, 489 N.W.2d 748 (1992) ("[A]ppellate courts are not juries, and ... they must not interfere with the jury's role[.]"). Indeed, this error in the majority's approach is exposed in its discussion of the specific facts of this case, particularly the majority's statement that failure to provide certain documents "implicates [the caregiver's] credibility...." Ante at 490. However, contrary to the majority's willingness to weigh in on witness credibility, this Court has frequently stated that appellate courts

In summary, I disagree with the majority's conclusion that an insured must prove that a family caregiver expected compensation in order to prove that charges were incurred for purposes of MCL 500.3107(1)(a). In my view, the insurer incurs the charge by way of its statutory obligation to provide PIP benefits under MCL 500.3107(1)(a) when the insured proves that the services were reasonably necessary and actually rendered and that the amount of the charge is reasonable. Furthermore, accepting arguendo the majority's declaration that an insured must prove that his or her caregiver expected compensation, I disagree with the majority's implication that certain forms of evidence will always be the "best way" to establish entitlement to PIP benefits. Not only does the majority admit that there is no statutory support for its conclusion, see ante at 496, the idea that an appellate court can determine the best evidence in a case has been consistently rejected as an improper invasion of the fact-finder's role as "the sole judge of the facts." Wolfe, 440 Mich. at 514, 489 N.W.2d 748 (quotation marks and citation omitted; emphasis added).

B. TIMING OF EXPECTATION AND REQUEST FOR PAYMENT

The majority creates another unsupported and previously nonexistent requirement when it states that a caregiver must expect compensation "at the time the services were rendered." Ante at 489; see, also, ante at 490 (stating that the "circuit court failed to make a finding regarding ... whether Mrs. Douglas expected compensation or reimbursement at the time she provided the services") (emphasis added). Again, the majority fails to identify any support for this new timing requirement in either the caselaw or the statutory language of MCL 500.3107(1)(a). The reason for the majority's failure to do so is obvious: there simply is no support for the majority's judicially created requirement. This is particularly notable given that members of the majority have often railed against extratextual requirements. See, e.g., People v. Schaefer, 473 Mich. 418, 432, 703 N.W.2d 774 (2005).5 Indeed, in People v. Wager, 460 Mich. 118, 123-124, 594 N.W.2d 487 (1999), the majority opinion expressly overruled a previous Court of Appeals opinion that had inserted a "reasonable time" requirement into the statute at issue in that case, stating "[N]o sound reason exists to engraft the `reasonable time' element onto the clear language of the statute." Accordingly, I am at a loss about why the majority believes it is appropriate to engraft a time requirement onto MCL 500.3107(1)(a) despite the lack of any such requirement in the actual language of the statute.6

Although the lack of support in the statutory language is reason enough to reject the majority's analysis, the practical implications of the majority's burdensome new requirement is also worth consideration. Specifically, by requiring that a family caregiver expect compensation, not only does the majority punish a family member who nobly acts to provide care to a loved one in a time of need, the majority also rewards the insurer, rather than the caregiver, for this act of kindness by allowing the insurer to avoid providing PIP benefits that it would otherwise be required to provide. This result is not only ethically troubling, but it also turns on its head the Legislature's intent that the no-fault act be construed liberally in favor of the insured. Turner, 448 Mich. at 28, 528 N.W.2d 681.

Additionally, by requiring that the caregiver expect compensation at the time the services are provided, the majority fails to recognize the reality of situations in which attendant-care services are needed. Specifically, claims for PIP benefits arise out of automobile-related accidents, which were typically sudden, unexpected events. Accordingly, family members may unexpectedly be called upon to immediately provide care to a loved one. Given the nature of most families, I believe that in the vast majority of situations, the family member would be willing to provide the care, at least initially, without any contemporaneous expectation of compensation from anyone. Thus, I believe that it may be fairly common that the caregiver is initially not even aware of the possibility of compensation and the process that must be completed in order to recover that compensation. Indeed, not every citizen is an attorney well versed in the intricacies of the no-fault act. As a result, at the time the services were provided, the caregiver would have no expectation that anyone will provide compensation. Yet under the majority's analysis, if a family member did not expect compensation at the time the services were provided, despite the sudden and chaotic circumstances of the situation, he or she is not entitled to retroactively expect compensation for services provided in the past after discovering that compensation is a realistic possibility. This approach rewards the insurer by allowing it to avoid providing PIP benefits that it would otherwise be obligated to provide under MCL 500.3107(1)(a) merely because the caregiver does not immediately demand compensation.7

II. DETERMINING WHAT IS A "REASONABLE CHARGE"

Under MCL 500.3107(1)(a), PIP benefits are payable for "allowable expenses" as long as the charge is "reasonable."8 In this case, the trial court, acting as the fact-finder in a bench trial, heard testimony from two sources regarding the rate typically charged by an agency to provide the care that Katherine Douglas provided. Additionally, the trial court heard testimony that while Dr. Thomas Rosenbaum's company employed Mrs. Douglas, she was paid at a rate of $10 an hour. Furthermore, the trial court heard testimony that Mrs. Douglas was unable to provide the hours of attendant care that plaintiff's doctor prescribed because she worked outside the home. After considering that testimony, the trial court awarded plaintiff PIP benefits at the rate of $40 an hour. In my view, agency rates are relevant to determining the proper rate of compensation for PIP benefits, and the trial court in this case properly considered the agency rates along with the other evidence submitted by the parties. Accordingly, I disagree with the majority that the trial court clearly erred in this case, and I would affirm the Court of Appeals on this issue.

Although the majority concludes that agency rates are both relevant and admissible in determining a "reasonable charge" under MCL 500.3107(1)(a), see ante at 493 n. 79 (stating that "this case is not about the admissibility of the agency rates" because agency rates "may in fact be helpful to the fact-finder as a point of comparison in determining a reasonable charge for an individual's provision of attendant care services"); and ante at 492 (stating that "an agency rate might bear some relation to an individual's rate"), the majority nevertheless relies exclusively on the Court of Appeals' opinion in Bonkowski v. Allstate Ins. Co., 281 Mich.App. 154, 165, 761 N.W.2d 784 (2008), which expressly stated that agency rates are "not relevant." I disagree with the majority's reliance on Bonkowski for several reasons.

To begin with, Bonkowski readily admitted that its entire discussion of the rate of compensation was dictum, stating that issue was not "squarely before" the Court. Id. at 164, 761 N.W.2d 784. Moreover, without justification, Bonkowski admittedly ignored caselaw that found agency rates relevant to determining the proper rate of compensation for a family member's provision of care. Id. (acknowledging that the Court of Appeals had "previously embraced the notion that `comparison to rates charged by institutions provides a valid method for determining whether the amount of an expense was reasonable and for placing a value on comparable services performed [by family members]'"), quoting Manley v. Detroit Auto. Inter-Ins. Exch., 127 Mich.App. 444, 455, 339 N.W.2d 205 (1983) (alteration in original). Further, Bonkowski cited no authority in support of its preferred approach to determining the proper rate of compensation for attendant care provided by unlicensed family members.

Most importantly, however, Bonkowski is poorly reasoned and, as a result, unpersuasive. Particularly unpersuasive is the notion that only the hourly rate paid to an attendant-care-services provider by an agency is relevant. Indeed, even the majority rejects this perspective. See ante at 493 n. 79 (acknowledging that agency rates "may in fact be helpful to the fact-finder").9 Accordingly, the majority is unwise to rely on Bonkowski's analysis of this issue. Rather, I would adopt the reasoning from Judge GLEICHER'S majority opinion in Hardrick v. Auto Club Ins. Ass'n, 294 Mich.App. 651, 819 N.W.2d 28 (2011).

Hardrick, 294 Mich.App. at 678-679, 819 N.W.2d 28, first noted that the question whether expenses are reasonable is generally a question for the fact-finder, as this Court stated in Nasser, 435 Mich. at 55, 457 N.W.2d 637. Second, Hardrick agreed with Bonkowski that "the rates charged by an agency to provide attendant-care services are not dispositive of the reasonable rate chargeable by a relative caregiver," but the opinion also concluded that "this does not detract from the relevance of such evidence." Hardrick, 294 Mich.App. at 666, 819 N.W.2d 28. Accordingly, I find persuasive Hardrick's decision to review the issue through the lens of the admissibility of evidence. Hardrick explained that evidence is "relevant" and thus "material" when it helps prove a proposition that is a "material fact at issue." Id. at 667-668, 819 N.W.2d 28. Because the "material fact at issue" is the reasonable rate for attendant-care services for an insured, and insurers routinely pay agency rates for attendant-care services, Hardrick concluded that agency rates are relevant to determining the proper compensation for relative caregivers. Hardrick emphasized that the issue "is not whether an agency rate is reasonable per se under the circumstances, but whether evidence of an agency rate may assist a jury in determining a reasonable charge for family-provided attendant-care services." Id. at 669, 819 N.W.2d 28. Accordingly, because an agency rate commonly paid by insurers "`throws some light, however faint,' on the reasonableness of a charge for attendant-care services," it is admissible. Id., citing Beaubien v. Cicotte, 12 Mich. 459, 484 (1864).

Moreover, Hardrick explained that the fact-finder "may ultimately decide that an agency rate carries less weight than the rate charged by an independent contractor, or no weight at all. But the fact that different charges for the same service exist in the marketplace hardly renders one charge irrelevant as a matter of law." Hardrick, 294 Mich.App. at 669, 819 N.W.2d 28. Indeed, the insurer would be free to introduce evidence showing the actual pay received by professional attendant-care-services providers and the overhead costs incurred by agencies that provide the care along with any other relevant evidence. In fact, in this case, defendant was permitted to counter plaintiff's evidence of the agency rate paid by Dr. Rosenbaum's company by showing that Mrs. Douglas was paid $10 an hour and with testimony from both defendant's medical expert and its claims adjuster. This is the critical error in the majority's reasoning: it fails to recognize that evidence of agency rates is only one of the various types of evidence that the fact-finder may consider in determining what constitutes a "reasonable charge," and the decision of which evidence is most relevant should be left to the fact-finder. Accordingly, I disagree with the majority's decision to opine regarding the weight that the fact-finder should give agency rates relative to other types of evidence when determining what constitutes a "reasonable charge." By doing so, the majority again forgets that "appellate courts are not juries, and ... they must not interfere with the jury's role[.]" See Wolfe, 440 Mich. at 514, 489 N.W.2d 748 (1992).

Indeed, by adopting Bonkowski's emphasis on an individual caregiver's hourly rate, the majority's approach ignores other relevant considerations. For example, the family member might be forced to abandon a more lucrative career or move a great distance in order to be able to provide long hours of care to a loved one over an extended period. Additionally, the majority's approach marginalizes the fact that a family member who provides attendant-care services may be left without an array of benefits that a professional attendant-care-services provider would ordinarily receive. For example, a professional attendant-care-services provider who is employed by an agency might receive health insurance benefits, vacation and sick leave, and retirement benefits, among other things. None of these benefits are represented in the professional attendant-care-services provider's hourly wage.10 Thus, by singularly focusing on the rate paid to an attendant-care-services professional in order to determine what is a "reasonable charge" for family-provided care under MCL 500.3107(1)(a), the majority fails to recognize the complexity of the inquiry at hand and reduces the determination to a purely economic decision when that is simply not the reality of the situation.

Furthermore, by implying that certain evidence is deserving of greater consideration when determining a "reasonable charge," the majority risks making the possibility of family-provided attendant care unattainable for a large number of no-fault insureds because their family members simply cannot afford to suffer the financial ramifications of that decision. This result not only potentially places families in the unenviable position of being forced to institutionalize a family member in order to make a fair living, but it also runs counter to one of the goals of the no-fault act: to keep no-fault insurance affordable. See Shavers v. Attorney General, 402 Mich. 554, 627-628, 267 N.W.2d 72 (1978). Specifically, if a family member cannot afford to provide attendant care at the lower rate that the majority opinion essentially mandates, the insured may be forced into an institution, which will potentially increase the cost of attendant care and, therefore, the amount of PIP benefits that insurers must pay.

Finally, although the majority is correct that this Court has not previously considered this exact issue, the Court of Appeals' approach in Hardrick is more consistent with this Court's opinion in Manley, 425 Mich. at 154, 388 N.W.2d 216, which considered the "reasonable charge" aspect of MCL 500.3107(1)(a) and held that evidence of a daily charge by facilities for "room and board" is admissible to determine a parent's costs for room and board of a disabled child in the parent-caregiver's home. See, also, Manley, 425 Mich. at 169, 388 N.W.2d 216 (BOYLE, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (stating that "comparison to rates charged by institutions provides a valid method for determining whether the amount of an expense was reasonable and for placing a value on comparable services performed by [a family member]") (quotation marks and citation omitted). Thus, given this Court's guidance on the issue in Manley, and because I believe that Hardrick's analysis is more thorough and well reasoned than Bonkowski's, I would adopt Hardrick's analysis.

Applying Hardrick's approach to this case, I would affirm the trial court's conclusion that $40 an hour is a "reasonable charge." The majority claims that the trial court's finding is "unjustified on this record"; however, the majority fails to consider a variety of factors that were before the fact-finder in this case. Specifically, the trial court heard testimony from which it could conclude that Mrs. Douglas would need to quit her job outside the home in order to provide plaintiff with the attendant care his doctor prescribed. Moreover, the trial court heard testimony regarding both the agency rate and individual rate of pay for the type of care that Mrs. Douglas was providing. Notably, defendant could have submitted additional evidence in support of its claim for a lower hourly rate, but it chose not to do so. Thus, while the majority is correct that it is "undisputed" that "Mrs. Douglas actually received $10 an hour in providing attendant care services to plaintiff," ante at 493, it is also undisputed that agencies receive a higher rate of compensation for the same services, and it is also undisputed that Mrs. Douglas could not provide the attendant care that plaintiff needed while maintaining her employment outside the home. Thus, the rate paid to an individual caregiver fails to encompass all the ramifications of Mrs. Douglas's provision of attendant care to plaintiff. Accordingly, because "[t]he trier of facts is permitted to draw natural inferences from all the evidence and testimony," Kostamo v. Marquette Iron Mining Co., 405 Mich. 105, 120-121, 274 N.W.2d 411 (1979), I cannot agree with the majority's conclusion that the trial court in this case "uncritically adopted" the agency rates or that agency rates were "the sole basis for the award of benefits in these circumstances." Ante at 493. As a result, I am not "left with the definite and firm conviction that a mistake has been made," Detroit v. Ambassador Bridge Co., 481 Mich. 29, 35, 748 N.W.2d 221 (2008) (quotation marks and citation omitted), and, thus, in my view, the trial court did not clearly err on this issue.

III. CONCLUSION

In summary, I dissent from the majority's effort to extend the erroneous interpretation of MCL 500.3107 from Griffith. Specifically, I disagree with the majority's judicially created requirements regarding what is necessary to show that a charge was incurred because those requirements are unsupported by the statutory language at issue and, thus, contrary to the Legislature's intent with regard to MCL 500.3107(1)(a). Moreover, the majority's decision to rely, at least in part, on the reasoning from Bonkowski, 281 Mich.App. 154, 761 N.W.2d 784, is ill conceived because Bonkowski is poorly reasoned, particularly in comparison to the persuasive analysis in Hardrick, 294 Mich.App. 651, 819 N.W.2d 28. Furthermore, Bonkowski is contrary to this Court's opinion in Manley, 425 Mich. 140, 388 N.W.2d 216. Accordingly, I dissent.

MARILYN KELLY and HATHAWAY, JJ., concurred with CAVANAGH, J.