WOLFSON, District Judge.
This putative class action challenges the constitutionality of detention procedures related to mandatory detention of aliens under 8 U.S.C. § 1226(c), codified as the Immigration and Nationality Act ("INA"). Putative class representatives Garfield O. Gayle ("Gayle") and Neville Sukhu ("Sukhu") (collectively, "Plaintiffs" or "Named Plaintiffs") aver that they and other similarly situated individuals in New Jersey have been subjected to unconstitutional mandatory immigration detention under § 1226(c) by the United States Department of Homeland Security, Immigration and Customs Enforcement ("DHS"/"ICE"). In that connection, Plaintiffs challenge (1) the standards to determine whether an alien is improperly designated as subject to mandatory detention (also known as Joseph hearings,
The Government moves to dismiss all of Plaintiffs' claims or, in the alternative, moves for summary judgment.
For the following reasons, the Court decides the parties' summary judgment motions as follows: summary judgment is (1)
The following facts are undisputed. Gayle is a Jamaican national and legal permanent resident of the United States. Defs.' Resp. to Pls.' Stmt. of Mat'l Facts at ¶ 22. He has lived in the United States for approximately 30 years. Id. ¶ 23. According to documents filed by ICE, in May 1995, Gayle was convicted after a bench trial of criminal possession of a controlled substance with the intent to sell in the third degree under New York State Penal Law § 220.16. Id. ¶ 24. In March 2007, Gayle pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor marijuana possession charge for which he was sentenced to ten days in jail. Id. ¶ 25. On March 24, 2012, ICE officers arrested Gayle. Pls.' Resp. to Defs.' Stmt. of Mat'l Facts at ¶ 3. ICE issued a Notice to Appear ("NTA"), charging Gayle with removal on the ground that his 1995 conviction rendered him deportable, and also found him subject to mandatory immigration detention
On March 24, 2012, Gayle received a Form I-286 Notice of Initial Custody Determination. Id. ¶ 29. At the time of receipt, as its policy, ICE provided every detainee under § 1226(c) mandatory detention with a Form I-286 notifying him that he "shall be: detained in the custody of the Department of Homeland Security" and checked the second box regarding IJ review, which stated that he "may not request review of this determination by an immigration judge ["IJ"] because the Immigration and Nationality Act prohibits your release from custody" ("Second Box"). Id. ¶ 30. However, the second box was not checked on the Form 1-286 served on Gayle; instead, ICE checked the first box on Gayle's Form I-286, indicating that he "may request" that an IJ re-determine ICE's custody decision ("First Box").
On September 20, 2012, Gayle filed a Motion to Terminate removal proceedings based on the Government's failure to prove the existence of the alleged 1995 conviction, i.e., attempted drug sale. Defs.' Resp. to Pls.' Stmt. of Mat'l Facts at ¶ 35. The IJ denied the Motion to Terminate on October 23, 2012. Id. ¶ 36. Subsequently, Gayle was mandatorily detained for approximately twelve months at the Monmouth County Correctional Facility in Freehold, New Jersey. Defs.' Resp. to Pls.' Stmt. of Mat'l Facts at ¶ 33.
Sukhu is a Guyanese national and LPR of the United States, who has lived in this country for approximately 20 years, almost entirely in New York City. Id. ¶ 40. In June 1997, Sukhu pleaded guilty to assault in the second degree in violation of N.Y. Penal Law § 120.05(6) and was sentenced to 90 days imprisonment. Id. ¶ 41. In May 2011, Sukhu pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor offense of theft of services in violation of N.Y. Penal Law § 165.15 and was sentenced to time served. Id. ¶ 42; Pls.' Resp. to Defs.' Stmt. of Mat'l Facts at ¶ 20. On August 15, 2011, ICE officers arrested Sukhu, Id. ¶ 21, and on the same day, ICE issued a Notice to Appear, charging Sukhu with removal under 8 U.S.C. § 1227(a)(2)(A)(i)—which governs crimes of moral turpitude—based on his 1997 conviction. Defs.' Resp. to Pls.' Stmt. of Mat'l Facts at ¶ 44.
On August 15, 2011, Sukhu received a Form I-286 Notice of Initial Custody Determination. See Sukhu I-286 Form. ICE determined that Sukhu was subject to mandatory detention under § 1226(c) based on two different convictions, i.e., 1997 and 2011 convictions, for crimes of moral turpitude. Pls.' Resp. to Defs.' Stmt. of Mat'l Facts at ¶ 23. Similar to Gayle, Sukhu received a Form I-286 from ICE notifying him that he "shall be: detained in the custody of the Department of Homeland Security." Along with that notification, ICE checked the First Box on the Form, which like Gayle's Form, indicated that he "may request" that an IJ re-determine ICE's custody decision
Sukhu was subject to mandatory detention under § 1226(c) for nearly 21 months at the Monmouth County Correctional Facility in Freehold, New Jersey. Defs.' Resp. to Pls.' Stmt. of Mat'l Facts at ¶ 51. At no point during his detention did the IJ inform Sukhu of his right to a Joseph hearing to challenge his mandatory detention. Id. ¶ 52. As to a bond hearing, ICE did not take the position that Sukhu was a flight risk nor did Sukhu receive a bond hearing or any other individualized determination that he posed a danger to the community. Id. ¶ 53.
On November 11, 2012, Sukhu, represented by counsel, attended a removal hearing before an IJ. On December 27, 2011, Sukhu sought to terminate his deportation
On August 5, 2013, Named Plaintiffs filed their third-amended class-action complaint ("TAC") against the Government, alleging, in relevant part, two causes of action for violations of the Immigration and Naturalization Act ("INA") and the due process clause of the United States Constitution.
Thereafter, the Government filed the instant motion to dismiss and, in the alternative, a motion for summary judgment. The Government contends that (1) Plaintiffs lack standing to challenge the adequacy of notice because they in fact received
On July 1, 2014, Plaintiffs filed a cross-motion for summary judgment. Plaintiffs claim that (1) Plaintiffs have standing to challenge the adequacy of the Joseph hearing and its associated procedures because Plaintiffs did not receive notice of their right to a Joseph hearing, did not receive Joseph hearings, and each presented a substantial challenge to the Government's charges; (2) Plaintiffs' notice claims are not mooted by ICE's updated Form I-286; (3) the Joseph standard and associated procedures violate both the Constitution and the INA; and (5) 8 U.S.C. 1252(f)(1) does not preclude requested class-wide injunctive relief.
In this Court's March 14, 2014 Opinion, I set forth the statutory and regulatory framework related to mandatory immigration detention and I incorporate that Opinion's relevant discussion herein. See Gayle, 4 F.Supp.3d at 701-05. However, for the purposes of this motion, I briefly note that 8 U.S.C. § 1226(c), enacted in the 1990s, concerns the apprehension and detention of aliens, and during the pendency of their removal cases, imposes mandatory detention on individuals, who are "deportable" or "inadmissible" based on certain criminal convictions. It states,
8 U.S.C. § 1226(c); compare 8 U.S.C. § 1226(a) (allowing aliens discretionarily detained pursuant to that provision to obtain an individualized bond hearing). According to the Government, ICE makes the initial determination that an individual is removable on the ground triggering mandatory detention under Section 1226(c) under a "reason to believe" standard. 8 U.S.C. § 1357(a)(2). Then, an alien could challenge that determination pursuant to the BIA decision in Matter of Joseph, 22 I. & N. Dec. 799 (BIA 1999). There, the Board held that an alien whom the INS
The Joseph Board reasoned that the foregoing standard would give both (1) "significant weight" to INS's initial custody determination in line with congressional intent that certain categories of removable aliens should be mandatorily detained, and (2) "genuine life" to the regulation that allows the IJ to reexamine the INS's determination. Id. at 807. In that regard, the BIA instructed the IJ to "look forward to what is likely to be shown during the hearing on the underlying removal case." Id. In other words, in order to support its "reason to believe" obligation at a preliminary hearing, the INS would not necessarily be required to provide, for example, a certified copy of the alien's conviction that served as the basis for mandatory detention, even though such a document ordinarily would be necessary for the Government to meet its burden of demonstrating that the alien should be removed. See id. Indeed, the Board made clear that the standard of proof on the Government is less exacting as the one imposed for the merits hearing.
Consequently, ICE devised certain procedures for executing the provisions of
Relatedly, Joseph hearings are not contemporaneously recorded verbatim as a matter of policy; rather, Joseph hearings are normally summarized by the IJ's order determining that a noncitizen is subject to mandatory detention or is eligible for a bond hearing. Defs.' Resp. to Pls.' Stmt. Of Mat'l Facts at ¶ 18. However, when a party appeals a Joseph decision, the IJ drafts a short bond memorandum providing the reasons for his or her decision in that context. Id.
Courts will enter summary judgment only when "the pleadings, depositions, answers to interrogatories, and admissions on file, together with the affidavits, if any, show that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and that the moving party is entitled to a judgment as a matter of law." FED.R.CIV.P. 56(a). An issue is "genuine" if supported by evidence such that a reasonable jury could return a verdict in the non-moving party's favor. See Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 251-52, 106 S.Ct. 2505, 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986). A fact is "material" if, under the governing substantive law, a dispute about the fact might affect the outcome of the suit. See id. at 252, 106 S.Ct. 2505. In determining whether a genuine issue of material fact exists, the court must view the facts and all reasonable inferences drawn from those facts "in the light most favorable to the [nonmoving] party." Matsushita Elec. Indus. Co. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. 574, 587, 106 S.Ct. 1348, 89 L.Ed.2d 538 (1986).
A party moving for summary judgment "bears the initial responsibility of informing the district court of the basis for its motion." Celotex v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 323, 106 S.Ct. 2548, 91 L.Ed.2d 265 (1986). The nonmoving party then carries the burden to "designate `specific facts showing that there is a genuine issue for trial.'" Id. at 324, 106 S.Ct. 2548. Moreover, the nonmoving party may not rest upon the mere allegations or denials of its pleading. Id. at 324, 106 S.Ct. 2548; Maidenbaum v. Bally's Park Place, Inc., 870 F.Supp. 1254, 1258 (D.N.J.1994). The non-moving party must "do more than simply show that there is some metaphysical doubt as to the material facts." Matsushita, 475 U.S. at
To satisfy the "case or controversy" standing requirement under Article III, a plaintiff must establish that he or she has suffered a cognizable injury that is causally related to the alleged conduct of the defendant and is redressable by judicial action. To satisfy this requirement, a "litigant must assert his or her own legal rights and interests, and cannot rest a claim to relief on the legal rights or interests of third parties." Powers v. Ohio, 499 U.S. 400, 410, 111 S.Ct. 1364, 113 L.Ed.2d 411 (1991); Valley Forge Christian Coll. v. Ams. United for Separation of Church and State, Inc., 454 U.S. 464, 474-75, 102 S.Ct. 752, 70 L.Ed.2d 700 (1982); Wheeler v. Travelers Ins. Co., 22 F.3d 534, 538 (3d Cir.1994).
Constitutional standing requires an "injury-in-fact, which is an invasion of a legally protected interest that is (a) concrete and particularized, and (b) actual or imminent, not conjectural or hypothetical." Reilly v. Ceridian Corp., 664 F.3d 38, 41 (3d Cir.2011). It is insufficient for the plaintiff to merely raise a "generally available grievance about government—claiming only harm to his and every citizen's interest in proper application of the Constitution and laws, and seeking relief that no more directly and tangibly benefits him than it does the public at large." Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555, 573-74, 112 S.Ct. 2130, 119 L.Ed.2d 351 (1992). Thus, in challenging the application of a federal statute—as Plaintiffs do here—the challengers must show that they have already sustained, or are in immediate and certain danger of sustaining, a real and direct injury. O'Shea v. Littleton, 414 U.S. 488, 494, 94 S.Ct. 669, 38 L.Ed.2d 674 (1974).
"Procedural due process imposes constraints on governmental decisions which deprive individuals of liberty or property interests within the meaning of the Due Process Clause of the Fifth or Fourteenth Amendment. . . . The fundamental requirement of due process is the opportunity to be heard at a meaningful time and in a meaningful manner." Mathews v. Eldridge, 424 U.S. 319, 332, 96 S.Ct. 893, 47 L.Ed.2d 18 (1976). "Freedom from imprisonment—from government custody, detention, or other forms of physical restraint—lies at the heart of the liberty [the Due Process] Clause protects." Zadvydas v. Davis, 533 U.S. 678, 690, 121 S.Ct. 2491, 150 L.Ed.2d 653 (2001).
"The due process afforded aliens stems from those statutory rights granted by Congress and the principle that minimum due process rights attach to statutory rights." Dia v. Ashcroft, 353 F.3d 228, 239 (3d Cir.2003) (internal citation and quotation marks omitted). Although an alien's mandatory detention for a reasonable period pending removal is constitutional, "the Fifth Amendment entitles aliens to due process of law in deportation proceedings." Demore, 538 U.S. at 523, 123 S.Ct. 1708 (quoting Reno v. Flores, 507 U.S. 292, 306, 113 S.Ct. 1439, 123 L.Ed.2d 1 (1993)). Thus, even in circumstances where mandatory detention is constitutionally permissible, due process still requires "adequate procedural protections" to ensure that the Government's stated justification for detaining an alien without a bond hearing "outweighs the individually constitutionally protected interest in avoiding physical restraint." Zadvydas, 533 U.S. at 690, 121 S.Ct. 2491 (internal quotation marks omitted).
I first address the Government's standing challenge in the context of the adequacy of notice given to aliens. The Government maintains that Plaintiffs' adequacy of notice claim fails because (1) Plaintiffs received actual notice of their right to a custody redetermination hearing and thus, lack standing; and (2) the claim is now moot because beginning in December 2013, ICE agents began checking the box on Form I-286 informing aliens that they have a right to seek review of ICE's custody determination in front of an IJ, and moreover, in March 2014, ICE adopted a revised Form I-286 that informs all aliens of their right to a custody redetermination hearing. Simao Decl. ¶¶ 8-9. In response, Plaintiffs contend that the Court has already disposed of the Government's standing challenge in this context in its previous decision, and that the revised Form I-286 continues to be constitutionally infirm.
The initial inquiry is whether Named Plaintiffs have standing; Named Plaintiffs must have suffered an injury-in-fact as a result of their allegedly inadequate notice of a custody redetermination hearing. See Winer Family Trust v. Queen, 503 F.3d 319, 326 (3d Cir.2007) (holding that the "initial inquiry" into standing in a putative class action is "whether the lead plaintiff individually has standing, not whether or not other class members have standing"); Blum v. Yaretsky, 457 U.S. 991, 999, 102 S.Ct. 2777, 73 L.Ed.2d 534 (1982) ("Nor does a plaintiff who has been subject to injurious conduct of one kind possess by virtue of that injury the necessary stake in litigating conduct of another kind, although similar, to which he has not been subject.").
The Government argues that because ICE checked the first box on Named Plaintiffs' Forms I-286—which indicated that a detainee "may request" that an IJ redetermine ICE's custody decision—Named Plaintiffs indeed received notice of their rights to a custody redetermination hearing. Plaintiffs counter that (1) the checked box merely represented notice of a bond hearing, as opposed to a Joseph hearing,
Indeed, the Form I-286 that Named Plaintiffs received stated that "[p]ursuant to the authority contained in Section 236 of the Immigration and Nationality Act and part 236 of title 8, Code of Federal Regulations," DHS determined that "pending a final determination by the immigration judge in your case, and in the event you are ordered removed from the United States, until you are taken into custody for removal you shall be: detained in the custody of the Department of Homeland Security."
Based on the plain language of the form, I find that Named Plaintiffs did not receive notice of their right to a Joseph hearing and thus, have standing to challenge the adequacy of that notice. ICE has stated that its policy at the time that Gayle and Sukhu were detained was to check the Second Box for those detained pursuant to Section 1226(c), and thus subject to mandatory detention. Simao Dep. at 110; Defs.' Response to Pls.' Stmt. Of Mat'l Facts at ¶¶ 30, 48. Importantly, there were no boxes to check, or any language, on the form that notified a mandatorily detained alien that he/she was entitled to a Joseph hearing. Conversely, those who were issued notices of custody determinations pursuant to Section 1226(a) were entitled to an individualized bond determination as a matter of right. See 8 U.S.C. § 1226; see also Simao Dep. at 107. It appears that ICE's policy at the time of Gayle's and Sukhu's detentions was to check the First Box for only those discretionarily detained under Section 1226(a) so as to accord such individuals their right to an individualized bond hearing. See id. § 1226(a); Diop v. ICE/Homeland Sec., 656 F.3d 221, 230 (3d Cir.2011). Both Gayle and Sukhu were detained pursuant to Section 1226(c). Defs.' Response to Pls.' Stmt. Of Mat'l Facts at ¶¶ 28, 47. It follows that ICE's apparent mistake by checking the First Box on Named Plaintiffs' Form I-286s was not intended to provide notice of Named Plaintiffs' rights under Joseph, as suggested, post facto, by the Government. In fact, under the language of the old Form I-286, Named Plaintiffs were never apprised of their right to receive a Joseph hearing, let alone to request one. Therefore, Named Plaintiffs clearly did not receive notice of their right to a Joseph hearing, and thus have suffered an injury-in-fact sufficient to confer standing to challenge the adequacy of the Form I-286.
The Government alternatively argues that Plaintiffs' adequacy of notice claim is now moot because of the recent changes ICE made to Form I-286. According to the Government, the form now informs all detained aliens of their right to a custody redetermination hearing in front of an IJ. See Rev. Form 1-286. However, Plaintiffs argue that summary judgment in their favor is still warranted because ICE's changes to Form I-286 remain constitutionally infirm. At issue here is whether the amended Form I-286 contains adequate information to apprise a detainee of his/her rights under the law.
To comport with due process requirements, deprivations of life, liberty or property should "be preceded by notice and an opportunity for hearing appropriate to the nature of the case." Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank and Trust Co., 339 U.S. 306, 313, 70 S.Ct. 652, 94 L.Ed. 865 (1950). In general, notice must be "reasonably calculated to apprise interested
Here, revised Form I-286, entitled "Notice of Custody Determination," informs recipients in the first section that, "[p]ursuant to the authority contained in section 236 of the Immigration and Nationality Act and part 236 of title 8, Code of Federal Regulations, [DHS has] determined that, pending a final administrative determination," they are either detained or released. See Rev. Form I-286. In the second section, detainees are informed that they "may request a review of this custody determination by an immigration judge" and must check the boxes stating that they acknowledge receipt of this notification and that they either request or do not request "an immigration judge review of this custody determination." Id. Section 236 of the INA corresponds to 8 U.S.C. § 1226.
Having reviewed its content, I find that, as a matter of law, revised Form I-286 does not provide adequate notice of an alien's right to a custody redetermination hearing, and therefore, the revised form is constitutionally infirm. First, the revised form expressly informs all aliens subject to detention under Section 1226—whether under Section 1226(a) or Section 1226(c)—to request a hearing on ICE's custody determination, without regard to the alien's status. See Shanahan Decl. at 2. However, Form I-286 not only fails to provide an alien with explicit notice that he or she is deemed subject to mandatory detention pursuant to Section 1226(c), but the Government also concedes that no other notice of mandatory detention is given to that alien. See Simao Tr. 142:9-17 ("Q: [D]oes ICE provide an alien subject to mandatory detention with any notice other than the I-286? . . . A: No other notice.").
Indeed, this sort of omission does not comport with procedural due process requirements. It is a fundamental requirement of due process "in any proceeding which is to be accorded finality is notice reasonably calculated, under all the circumstances, to apprise interested parties of the pendency of the action and afford them an opportunity to present their objections." Mullane, 339 U.S. at 314, 70 S.Ct. 652; West v. Spencer, 321 Fed.Appx. 151, 153 (3d Cir.2009); Nu-Look Design, Inc. v. C.I.R., 356 F.3d 290, 295 (3d Cir. 2004). Significantly, "[t]he notice must be of such nature as reasonably to convey the required information." In re Penn Cent. Transp. Co., 771 F.2d 762, 768 (3d Cir. 1985). Thus, the purpose of the notice requirement is to advise individuals who will be affected by the outcome of any proceeding of the impending hearing so that they can take steps to safeguard their interests. Memphis Light Gas, 436 U.S. at 14, 98 S.Ct. 1554; Greene v. Lindsey, 456 U.S. 444, 451, 102 S.Ct. 1874, 72 L.Ed.2d 249 (1982). Here, the omission is significant because if an alien is not apprised of his or her detention status, it follows that the alien would not know, and the form fails to indicate, the type of custody redetermination hearing to which he or she is entitled. In that regard, the notice does not adequately convey the necessary information such that the alien could properly prepare for either the Joseph hearing or a bond hearing, particularly since the hearings require different types of proofs and the alien has a significantly higher burden of proof at a Joseph hearing, see infra.
Accordingly, I find that ICE's revised Form I-286 does not provide adequate notice to aliens detained pursuant to Section 1226(c) of their right to contest their detention and thus, I grant summary judgment in favor of Plaintiffs on their adequacy of notice claim.
The Government argues that Plaintiffs lack standing to challenge the Joseph hearing procedures. In its brief, the Government argues that Plaintiffs lack standing because they did not possess substantial challenges to the bases for their mandatory detention.
In essence, the issues raised by the parties in this context relate to the respective merits of Gayle and Sukhu's deportability, i.e., whether Gayle and Sukhu each has a substantial basis to terminate removal proceedings. Thus, the question relating to the definition of "substantial challenge," a term advanced by Plaintiffs, is not one that impacts standing. Indeed, the Government improperly injects one of its arguments opposing Plaintiffs' class certification motion
Although the Government argues that Named Plaintiffs lack standing because they purport to bring a class action on behalf of those who possess a "substantial challenge" to their inclusion under Section 1226(c), and Named Plaintiffs do not have "substantial challenges" to their own inclusion under that statutory provision, I nonetheless find that my previous ruling on this issue remains the law of the case here.
Gayle, 4 F.Supp.3d at 715. Furthermore, discovery has taken place in this case; contrary to the Government's assertion, Judge Wiesel's testimony during his deposition provides explanation, and specific instances, of how immigration judges apply the Joseph standards.
In sum, the Government does not offer any explanation for why the Court should revisit its prior holding. As such, its ripeness argument is unavailing and I deny the Government's motion for summary judgment on this basis. Accordingly, consistent with my prior ruling, both Gayle and Sukhu have standing to challenge the Joseph hearing procedures.
Both Plaintiffs and the Government move for summary judgment on Plaintiffs'
In assessing whether a particular administrative procedure comports with due process, courts should "look to see if the process at issue fits with the notion that "[t]he fundamental requirement of due process is the opportunity to be heard at a meaningful time and in a meaningful manner."" Dia, 353 F.3d at 239 (quoting Mathews, 424 U.S. at 333, 96 S.Ct. 893). "(D)ue process is flexible and calls for such procedural protections as the particular situation demands." Id. at 334 (quoting Morrissey v. Brewer, 408 U.S. 471, 481, 92 S.Ct. 2593, 33 L.Ed.2d 484 (1972)).
Biliski v. Red Clay Consol. Sch. Dist. Bd. of Educ., 574 F.3d 214, 220 (3d Cir.2009) (quoting Mathews, 424 U.S. at 335, 96 S.Ct. 893).
I note at the outset that whether the Joseph standards are constitutionally adequate is an open question. See Demore, 538 U.S. at 514 n. 3, 123 S.Ct. 1708 ("[W]e
Because the Mathews test is flexible, precedent has not established a uniform approach to which this Court must adhere. Rather, it is this Court's role to address each factor of the test and, if necessary, weigh them in fashioning a proper remedy. Thus, a court's first task is to identify and discuss each of the factors before weighing them. I begin my analysis under Mathews by examining whether Plaintiffs have identified a private interest that is affected by the Government's action. There is no dispute that: Plaintiffs have identified a private liberty interest, i.e., remain free from detention; that the Government's mandatory detention procedures affect this interest; and that a liberty interest may not be impaired without due process of law. See Demore, 538 U.S. at 523, 123 S.Ct. 1708 ("It is well established that the Fifth Amendment entitles aliens to due process of law in deportation proceedings."). However, the parties dispute how much weight should be given to this factor in the flexible Mathews analysis. Plaintiffs argue that under Zadvydas, an alien's interest in freedom from detention "lies at the heart of the liberty that Clause protects," and that the Government must prove a "special justification" outweighing the "individual's constitutionally protected interest in avoiding physical restraint." 533 U.S. at 690, 121 S.Ct. 2491. The Government, however, points to language in Demore and other cases that "[t]he liberty rights of the aliens before us here are subject to limitations and conditions not applicable to citizens," Demore, 538 U.S. at 522, 123 S.Ct. 1708 (internal quotations and citations omitted).
Essentially, the tension here is between Plaintiffs' liberty interest and the Government's authority, granted by Congress, to mandatorily detain deportable aliens who have committed certain crimes. The Government's position relies heavily on the third factor of the Mathews test—the Government's interests and burdens. On this factor, the Government identifies certain interests that it argues weigh heavily in favor of maintaining the current Joseph standard. First, the Government submits that the Joseph standard protects the congressional aim of preventing deportable aliens from fleeing the country before their removal proceedings. This interest, indeed, coincides with Congress's stated intent in enacting § 1226(c). Section 1226(c) aims:
Dean v. Ashcroft, 176 F.Supp.2d 316 (D.N.J.2001) (citing S.Rep. No. 104-48,
These interests have been considered compelling by the Supreme Court, which found that § 1226(c) is premised on a sufficiently strong special justification so as not to run afoul of the Constitution. See Demore, 538 U.S. at 518-21, 123 S.Ct. 1708. In so finding, the Court stressed that mandatory detention
Id. at 529, 123 S.Ct. 1708. Similarly, the Third Circuit recently reiterated that "Congress adopted the mandatory-detention statute against a backdrop of rising crime by deportable aliens.... To make matters worse, many aliens failed to show up at their deportation proceedings.... [Section 1226(c)] promotes the public interest by keeping the most dangerous aliens off the streets." Sylvain, 714 F.3d at 159. As the Supreme Court observed in Demore, deportation proceedings "would be vain if those accused could not be held in custody pending the inquiry into their true character." Demore, 538 U.S. at 523, 123 S.Ct. 1708 (quoting Wong Wing v. United States, 163 U.S. 228, 235, 16 S.Ct. 977, 41 L.Ed. 140 (1896)) (quotation marks omitted).
Second, the current standard preserves the distinction between preliminary or custody hearings and merits hearings, a distinction clearly warranted for procedural and practical reasons. See, e.g., United States v. Delker, 757 F.2d 1390, 1396 (3d Cir.1985) ("Congress [has] warned that bail hearings should not become mini-trials.") (citations omitted); Kaley v. United States, ___ U.S. ___, 134 S.Ct. 1090, 188 L.Ed.2d 46 (2014) ("[T]he Government has a substantial interest in freezing potentially forfeitable assets without an evidentiary hearing about the probable cause underlying criminal charges. At the least, such an adversarial proceeding—think of it as a pre-trial mini-trial (or maybe a pre-trial not-so-mini-trial)—could consume significant prosecutorial time and resources."). To impose a more searching analysis in custody redetermination hearings, such as Plaintiffs' proposed "substantial challenge" standard, would, as argued by the Government, expend more governmental resources and further delay the ultimate disposition of an alien's removal proceedings. As a result, Joseph hearings would become more time consuming and complex.
I finally turn to the second Mathews factor, the risk of an erroneous deprivation and the probable value of additional procedural safeguards. Mathews, 424 U.S. at 335, 96 S.Ct. 893. Plaintiffs contend that under Joseph, the risk of erroneous deprivations of aliens' liberty interests is impermissibly high. Plaintiffs cite to a panoply of BIA cases which found that aliens had failed to establish under Joseph that ICE was "substantially unlikely" to prevail on its charges, despite asserting, among other claims, (1) U.S. citizenship,
Plaintiffs further argue that their proposed alternative standard—rejecting mandatory detention at custody redetermination hearings for those who possess a "substantial challenge" to their inclusion under Section 1226(c)—would greatly enhance the protection of an alien's liberty interest. The proposed standard for whether a convicted defendant may be released on bail pending his or her appeal, borrows the "substantial question" analysis from U.S. v. Smith, 793 F.2d 85 (3d Cir. 1986), and "requires that the issue on appeal be significant in addition to being novel, not governed by controlling precedent or fairly doubtful." Smith, 793 F.2d at 88. According to Plaintiffs, this standard would potentially allow aliens to successfully challenge their inclusion under Section 1226(c) so long as the legal basis for their inclusion has not been decided by the Supreme Court, and would allow for a case-by-case analysis of whether a particular alien's challenge was "substantial."
The Government, on the other hand, argues that the preliminary nature of the Joseph hearing does not create a constitutionally impermissible risk of erroneous
I now turn to weighing the Mathews factors to determine whether the current Joseph standards violate the Constitution and if so, what remedy is necessary to prevent such violation. This Court recognizes, as I must, pursuant to the Supreme Court and the Third Circuit precedent, that the Government has a compelling interest under § 1226(c) in detaining aliens pending their removal proceedings and preventing them from absconding during those proceedings, despite competing liberty interests that the Constitution safeguards. However, it is my task to balance governmental interests with those of the detained aliens. In that respect, having surveyed BIA decisions regarding Joseph hearings, I find that there is a real risk that the liberty interests of a narrow class of aliens—those who cannot establish that ICE is "substantially unlikely" to prevail in its charges against them but who are ultimately not subject to Section 1226(c)—will be erroneously deprived. My analysis begins with the "reason to believe" standard which ICE uses to issue its NTAs, and which, according to the Government, the IJ also uses to test the sufficiency of the Government's evidence in the first instance during the Joseph hearing.
The "reason to believe" language is set forth in the regulations and the commentary accompanying them: an authorized ICE agent may detain an alien if there is
The confusion starts with the Joseph decision. Under that decision, it is not clear that ICE explicitly bears any sort of evidentiary burden at a Joseph hearing. The Joseph court stated,
Joseph, 22 I. & N. Dec. at 807. Nowhere does the BIA delineate the requirements of the "reason to believe" standard. Indeed, since the Joseph decision, contrary to the Government's position, immigration courts have focused almost exclusively on Joseph's language imposing the burden on the alien to prove that ICE is "substantially unlikely to prevail." See, e.g., In re: Raul Capi-Esquivel a.k.a. Raul Esquivel-Capi, 2011 WL 1792600, at *1 (DCBABR Apr. 13, 2011) ("In a so-called `Joseph' hearing, the respondent bears the burden of establishing that DHS would be substantially unlikely to prevail on a charge of removability under a section of the Act mandating custody."). However, the Government does not claim, and the Court has found no case holding, that ICE bears any sort of formal burden at a Joseph hearing. Moreover, even if ICE has an initial burden of proof, it is unclear how an IJ evaluates whether ICE has met its burden.
Furthermore, the deposition of Judge Weisel, the assistant chief immigration judge, is telling as to the practice of IJs at Joseph hearings. Judge Weisel's testimony reveals that there do not appear to be any objective standards under which IJs evaluate the Government's proffered evidence at the Joseph hearing. See Weisel Tr. 105:12-15 ("The government may produce a record of conviction. I don't know what evidence the government would use. They could even produce testimony" to show they would likely prevail at the merits proceedings.). And, indeed, according to Judge Weisel, it appears, at times, the IJs do not even require the Government to produce any evidence. See Id. at 107:21-108:11; 109:22-24 ("It would behoove the government to produce documents to demonstrate
One thing is clear from Judge Weisel's testimony and the case law: there is no uniform standard by which to assess the Government's initial burden under the "reason to believe" analysis. Among its inadequacies, questions remain (1) whether the reason to believe analysis imposes a subjective standard or otherwise; (2) whose belief the IJ must evaluate; and (3) what, if any, evidence would be sufficient to justify the belief. And, finally, there is scant precedent to guide the IJ. Exacerbating the ill-defined process, the Government tacitly concedes that "[t]he burden on the Government during a Joseph hearing may change over time and in relation to the allegations and evidence presented by the alien"; this concession raises the vexing question of how an alien is able to prepare his or her argument against mandatory detention while navigating a seemingly constantly shifting procedural landscape. Thus, based on the current standard, it is likely that an individual may be deemed subject to mandatory detention even if ICE merely presented a scintilla of unrefuted evidence. This result, as a matter of constitutional jurisprudence, is a serious deprivation of an individual's liberty interest that is not justified by the Government's interests under § 1226(c).
Accordingly, because the Government's initial burden, i.e., "reason to believe" that the alien is subject to mandatory detention, at the Joseph hearing is virtually undefined—and, at best, minimal—and the individual's burden under the "substantial unlikely" standard is particularly heavy, I find that the current Joseph hearing standard creates a high risk of an erroneous deprivation of Plaintiffs' liberty interests. Having made that finding, I, next, determine to what standard the Government should be subjected in carrying its initial burden at a Joseph hearing.
I need go no further than the Government's own concession. On its motion, the Government repeatedly equates the "reason to believe" standard to that of a probable cause inquiry. However, as a practical matter and in the absence of any judicial precedent, the probable cause standard has not been articulated or adopted by any immigration judges or even the Government itself. Yet, I find the probable cause standard is sufficient to ameliorate any potential wrongful deprivation of liberty an alien may suffer in light of his or her "substantially unlikely to prevail" burden at Joseph hearings. In fact, if ICE were to establish to the satisfaction of an IJ at the Joseph hearing that there is probable cause to place an alien in mandatory detention, prior to the alien presenting his or her objections, the alien would be better able to meet the challenge and the "substantially unlikely" to prevail burden the alien currently bears would not, in this Court's view, be constitutionally infirm. This conclusion has substantial support in the case law. See Mich. v. Summers, 452 U.S. 692, 697, 101 S.Ct. 2587, 69 L.Ed.2d 340 (1981).
On one hand, probable cause, albeit in a criminal context, protects an individual's liberty under the Constitution; such protection cannot be compromised. See id. Because mandatory detention in the immigration context deprives aliens of their
The probable cause inquiry does not require a rigorous showing by the Government, nor any burdensome or rigid analysis on the part of an IJ. In fact, the probable cause standard would only place a minimal additional burden on the Government. To illustrate, in the Joseph context, under a probable cause analysis, an IJ would examine whether the facts and circumstances, based upon reasonably trustworthy information, are sufficient to warrant a prudent man to believe that the alien is subject to mandatory detention under § 1226(c). See United States v. Burton, 288 F.3d 91, 98 (3d Cir.2002). Probable cause requires "the kind of `fair probability' on which `reasonable and prudent people, not legal technicians, act.'" Florida v. Harris, ___ U.S. ___, 133 S.Ct. 1050, 1055, 185 L.Ed.2d 61 (2013). While the test is "fluid," importantly, and contrary to the current "reason to believe standard," it contains an objective component—the "reasonably prudent man" standard—which can adequately be reviewed by judges. See Devenpeck v. Alford, 543 U.S. 146, 153, 125 S.Ct. 588, 160 L.Ed.2d 537 (2004). By contrast, the "reason to believe" standard, to the extent it exists as ICE's burden of proof in a Joseph hearing, has no clear objective component.
Importantly, requiring ICE to satisfy the IJ that there is probable cause for mandatory detention before the alien has to prove that ICE is "substantially unlikely" to prevail at the merits hearing, does not disturb congressional intent to prevent potentially deportable aliens from committing more crimes or fleeing before their removal proceedings; as always, an individual who has succeeded in a Joseph hearing would then proceed to a bond hearing, where he or she may still be subject to detention if an IJ determines the alien is a flight risk or a danger to the community.
I note, however, in the criminal context, in evaluating whether there was probable cause to search or make an arrest, courts examine the facts and circumstances known to the officer at the time he or she took action. See Burton, 288 F.3d at 98. Here, because Plaintiffs only challenge the standards applied at the hearing, not at ICE's initial custody determination, I make no findings about the constitutional adequacy of ICE's initial determination in issuing an NTA. Rather, the probable cause inquiry imposed by the Court here only concerns an IJ's initial determination whether the Government's evidence supports a finding that the alien is subject to § 1226(c)'s mandatory detention. In that regard, the IJ should examine the facts and circumstances known to ICE, and of which ICE has reasonably trustworthy information, at the time of the Joseph hearing to determine whether a reasonably prudent person would believe that the alien had committed the offenses triggering mandatory detention.
I next address whether the alien's subsequent burden of showing that the Government
On this issue, I must balance the interest of the Government against the liberty concerns of the alien. There is no doubt that Congress has a compelling governmental interest in regulating, and the authority to regulate, the conduct of aliens. Flores, 507 U.S. at 303-06, 113 S.Ct. 1439. To that end, in general, "detention during the deportation proceedings [is] a constitutionally valid aspect of the deportation process." Demore, 538 U.S. at 523, 123 S.Ct. 1708. Indeed, the reason that an alien's right to be at liberty is circumscribed is because of national interest considerations. A reading of Demore suggests that the Government need not bear a heavy burden to justify detaining an alien pending a more formal hearing. To require more, would impermissibly undermine ICE's authority and the purposes underlying § 1226(c). As Justice Kennedy wrote: "due process requires individualized procedures to ensure that there is at least some merit to [ICE's] charge, and therefore, sufficient justification to detain a lawful permanent alien pending a more formal hearing." Demore, 538 U.S. at 531, 123 S.Ct. 1708 (Kennedy, concurring). "At least some merit" certainly is a much lower standard than the one Plaintiffs propose here.
Moreover, the Supreme Court has advised, albeit not in the context of a Joseph hearing, that preliminary hearings are different and distinct than final hearings on the merits. See Morrissey, 408 U.S. at 488, 92 S.Ct. 2593. The difference, as the Supreme Court advised, is that preliminary hearings are less formal and not rigorous, while merit hearings call for formal findings of fact and conclusions of law. Id. at 487, 92 S.Ct. 2593. In that connection, preliminary and final hearings each impose different evidentiary standard. Id. at 490-91, 92 S.Ct. 2593. Here, the Joseph hearing and the final removal hearing, too, are separate and distinct proceedings, each with a different set of burdens of proof. Yet, Plaintiffs propose that, at a Joseph hearing, so long as the alien can show that he or she has a substantial challenge to the Government's determination under § 1226(c), he or she should not be subject to mandatory detention. However, in order for an IJ to decide whether an alien has a substantial challenge, the IJ would necessarily engage in a potentially more expansive analysis of the merits of an alien's detention. This type of review could obviate the purpose of, and the need for, a final removal hearing.
After a weighing of the different interests, I do not find that the Constitution requires altering the alien's burden of proof at a Joseph hearing. On one hand, because I recognize that the alien has a liberty interest in not being erroneously detained by the Government, the imposition of a probable cause standard will protect against such errors. On the other hand, however, the private interest does not trump the Government's compelling interest, as set forth by the Supreme Court and the Third Circuit, in detaining aliens who have committed certain crimes pursuant to § 1226(c). To impose a higher burden on the Government than the current
In sum, I grant in part Plaintiffs' summary judgment motion by imposing a probable cause standard on the IJ's initial determination of whether the Government has a sufficient basis to detain individuals under § 1226(c). In light of this procedural protection, I do not find that Plaintiffs' proposed standard—a showing that the alien has a substantial challenge to the Government's basis for detention under § 1226(c), as opposed to the alien's current standard of showing the Government is substantially unlikely to prevail—is constitutionally required. Instead, at that juncture of the proceedings when probable cause is obtained and when the alien has the opportunity to object to the bases for his or her mandatory detention, the alien will have received constitutionally sustainable due process. I grant in part the Government's motion in this context.
The Government initially contended that Plaintiffs lack standing to claim that ICE's practice of not contemporaneously recording Joseph hearings is unlawful, because both Gayle's and Sukhu's custody redetermination hearings were recorded. The Government appears to have abandoned this argument because it concedes in its opposition to Plaintiffs' cross-motion for summary judgment that Plaintiffs did not, in fact, receive a custody redetermination hearing. Accordingly, the Court will not analyze this argument. I proceed to the parties' arguments on the merits.
Both parties move for summary judgment on Plaintiffs' claim that the Government's policy of failing to require that contemporaneous verbatim records of Joseph hearings be made and kept has resulted in statutory and constitutional violations under the Fifth Amendment's due process clause. The Government argues that a contemporaneous verbatim record of Joseph hearings is not required by the INA and its applicable regulations, the Third Circuit, the Supreme Court, or the Constitution. In support, the Government points to (1) the distinction between merits hearings and preliminary hearings (into which they classify Joseph hearings) codified in the INA,
As with my due process analysis of the Joseph standards, because the parties do not dispute whether Plaintiffs have identified a substantial private interest in remaining free from detention under Mathews, the Court turns to the next factor of analysis: "the risk of an erroneous deprivation of such interest through the procedures used, and the probable value, if any, of additional or substitute procedural safeguards." Mathews, 424 U.S. at 335, 96 S.Ct. 893.
To begin, I look for guidance from due process case law in other contexts. In that regard, I find the non-dispositive nature of Joseph hearings similar to the preliminary hearings held for parolees who have potentially violated their parole. In Morrissey,
Morrissey, 408 U.S. at 487, 92 S.Ct. 2593 (internal citation and quotation marks omitted). Similar to the parolees in Morrissey, alien detainees under section 1226(c) are entitled to a hearing to determine whether ICE is "substantially unlikely to establish at the merits hearing, or on appeal, the charge or charges that would otherwise subject the alien to mandatory detention." Joseph, 22 I. & N. at 806. Even if the IJ presiding over a Joseph hearing finds that the Government is substantially likely to prevail on its charges and the alien is ordered into mandatory detention, the alien receives another chance to contest the applicability of Section 1226(c), or any other basis to contest removal, in the ensuing removal proceedings, and to potentially secure freedom
As a practical matter, the typical evidence presented at a Joseph hearing also weighs against the necessity of requiring contemporaneous verbatim records in such hearings, and Plaintiffs fail to demonstrate otherwise. The Government advances, and Plaintiffs do not dispute, that Joseph hearings "generally turn on a review of conviction records and consideration of the arguments of counsel," as opposed to sworn witness testimony. See Defs.' Br. Opp. Pls.' Cross-Mot. Summ. J. at 31; see also Weisel Tr. 64:16-20, 95:24-25, 96:2-4. Thus, "even though the only record of a Joseph hearing is the IJ's resulting order, which may simply be a check mark on the Form I-286 or a written summary order," a detainee's arguments against mandatory detention can still be presented on appeal without the aid of a contemporaneous verbatim record. Importantly, Plaintiffs merely mention, in passing, the "risk of error occasioned by memorandum decisions" without further explanation. As such, Plaintiffs fail to tangibly demonstrate the risk of erroneous deprivation of their liberty interest resulting from the lack of a contemporaneous verbatim record. See Weisel Tr. 130:10-12 ("I really haven't had the need to use DAR [digital audio recordings] to determine the accuracy of my trial notes.").
Moreover, IJs are not prohibited from recording Joseph hearings if they wish to do so, see Weisel Tr. 130:19-20, 131:3-4, and existing immigration procedures already provide that formal bond hearings may be required when prejudice would result from following more informal procedures. Because of these already existing safeguards, "there is no requirement in bond proceedings for a formal hearing and that informal procedures may be used so long as no prejudice results." In re Mohammad J.A. Khalifah, 21 I. & N. Dec. 107, 112 (BIA 1995). Because I find that a summarized record of Joseph hearing proceedings is adequate for purposes of appeal, I find that the second Mathews factor weighs against requiring contemporaneous verbatim records of Joseph hearings.
Plaintiffs focus their argument on the third prong of the Mathews analysis: that the Government has a low interest in maintaining its current policy of not requiring contemporaneous verbatim records in Joseph hearings. Plaintiffs reason that the Government does not dispute that "digital audio recording equipment is available in every immigration court that conducts any hearing granted to an alien detained under 8 U.S.C. 1226(c) who requests a custody redetermination." Defs.' Resp. to Pls.' Stmt. of Mater. Facts at ¶¶ 19-21. Nor does the Government dispute that
Finally, Plaintiffs urge the Court to adopt the reasoning in Singh v. Holder, wherein the Ninth Circuit held that a contemporaneous verbatim record was required in Casas hearings. Singh v. Holder, 638 F.3d 1196 (9th Cir.2011). However, the Court finds Singh distinguishable because the hearings at issue in that case materially differ from Joseph hearings. Casas hearings are "bond hearings for aliens facing prolonged detention while their petitions for review of their removal orders are pending." Id. at 1200. Because they are individualized hearings turning on whether an alien is a flight risk or a danger to the community, Casas hearings often involve witness testimony in the form of direct and cross-examination as well as a more general examination of an alien's personal history. See id. at 1201-02. Joseph hearings, on the other hand, solely consider evidence pertaining to an alien's past convictions and determine whether ICE is "substantially unlikely" to prevail in its "charge or charges that would otherwise subject the alien to mandatory detention." Joseph, 22 I. & N. Dec. at 806. Because any prejudice that would result from failing to require a contemporaneous verbatim records requirement in Joseph hearings is significantly lower than that which would result from failing to contemporaneously record the testimony and statements made at Casas hearings, I do not find the Ninth Circuit's holding in Singh persuasive for the purposes of my analysis here.
This Court concludes that under a balancing of the Mathews factors, while an alien's interest in remaining free is indisputably substantial, the lack of a contemporaneous verbatim transcript in the Joseph hearing does not create a high risk of erroneous deprivation of an alien's liberty interest. Further, requiring contemporaneous verbatim records would not add substantial value as a procedural safeguard. Thus, even though the Government's burden resulting from requiring contemporaneous verbatim records of Joseph hearings appears relatively slight, the Mathews factors tip against finding such a constitutional requirement. See, e.g., Flaim v. Med. Coll. of Ohio, 418 F.3d 629, 642 (6th Cir. 2005) (finding that while the administrative cost of a proposed alternative procedure "would likely be minimal, the additional safeguard in this case is negligible" and accordingly finding Due Process "do[es] not warrant such a safeguard").
That said, however, my legal holding rests upon the minimal protection that the Constitution requires. But, as a matter of sound practice, I find that recording the
The Government argues that under 8 U.S.C. § 1252(f)(1), the Court is barred from granting injunctive relief to the putative class of plaintiffs even in the event that the Court finds they have been harmed, because Section 1252(f)(1) bars courts other than the Supreme Court from enjoining or restraining the operation of Section 1226(c). See 8 U.S.C. § 1252(f)(1).
Gayle, 4 F.Supp.3d at 721. In asking the Court to rule otherwise, the Government has not presented any bases to disturb my previous decision in this context. Therefore, the Government's argument is rejected.
As a result of my findings herein, the Government shall be enjoined from using the current revised version of the Form I-286. The Government is directed to amend Form I-286 consistent with this Opinion. In addition, during a custody redetermination hearing, i.e., Joseph hearing, the Government must initially satisfy an Immigration Judge that there is probable cause to find that that a detained alien falls within
In connection with their constitutional claims, Named Plaintiffs seek to certify a class of all individuals who are or will be detained within the State of New Jersey pursuant to the mandatory detention provision of § 1226(c) and who have a substantial challenge to "threshold deportability" or "inadmissibility" on one of the statutory grounds that trigger mandatory detention. Having determined the merits of Named Plaintiffs' claims, I do not find certification of a class necessary.
In Ihrke v. Northern States Power Co., 459 F.2d 566 (8th Cir.1972), vacated on other grounds, 409 U.S. 815, 93 S.Ct. 66, 34 L.Ed.2d 72 (1972), the Eight Circuit declared that "(t)he determination of the constitutional question can be made by the Court and the rules and regulations determined to be constitutional or unconstitutional regardless of whether this action is treated as an individual action or as a class action. No useful purpose would be served by permitting this case to proceed as a class action." 459 F.2d at 572. Consistent with this principle, courts across the country have considered the class device superfluous when the plaintiff has challenged a statute as facially unconstitutional. As one judge has voiced, "It makes me wonder why the complexities of Federal Rule of Procedure 23 are entered into when the declaration of unconstitutionality for one would, or at least should, in effect proclaim unconstitutionality for all. . . ." Bond v. Dentzer, 325 F.Supp. 1343, 1352 (N.D.N.Y. 1971).
Indeed, other circuits have followed the Ihrke approach. See Carter v. Butz, 479 F.2d 1084, 1089 (3d Cir.1973); James v. Ball, 613 F.2d 180, 186 (9th Cir.1979); Craft v. Memphis Light, Gas and Water Div., 534 F.2d 684, 686 (6th Cir.1976); Martinez v. Richardson, 472 F.2d 1121, 1127 (10th Cir.1973) ("But as we view it, a class action was not demanded here because the same relief could be afforded without its use and seemingly the court had something of this kind in mind when it provided in paragraph 6 of its findings for further enforcement action if the same should become necessary. Thus the court was thinking of future compliance and this was, of course, the important problem."); United Farmworkers of Florida Housing Project, Inc. v. City of Delray Beach, 493 F.2d 799, 812 (5th Cir.1974); Cockerel v. Caldwell, 378 F.Supp. 491, 494 (W.D.Ky. 1974); Doe v. Wohlgemuth, 376 F.Supp. 173, 181-82 (W.D.Pa.1974), vacated on other grounds sub. nom. Doe v. Beal, 523 F.2d 611, 613, n. 2 (3rd Cir.1975) (en banc); Koehler v. Ogilvie, 53 F.R.D. 98, 101 (N.D.Ill.1971), aff'd mem., 405 U.S. 906, 92 S.Ct. 938, 30 L.Ed.2d 777 (1972); Holt v. Brown, 336 F.Supp. 2, 6 (W.D.Ky.1971) (three-judge court); Nelson v. Likins, 389 F.Supp. 1234, 1239 (D.Minn.1974); Mohr v. Jordan, 370 F.Supp. 1149, 1151 n. 3 (D.Md.1974); Rappaport v. Katz, 62 F.R.D. 512, 515 (S.D.N.Y.1974); Bonser v. New Jersey, 605 F.Supp. 1227, 1236 (D.N.J. 1985)
The reasoning is straightforward: if the statutes, regulations or policies at issue are held to be unconstitutional, such decision would be binding on all of the governmental agencies and would indeed inure to the benefit of all members of the proposed class, thus obviating the need for a lawsuit to proceed as a class action. See Craft, 534 F.2d at 686 ("As to a Rule 23(b)(2) class asserting claims to injunctive and declaratory relief, the district court properly recognized that such relief to the extent `granted [would] . . . accrue to the benefit of others similarly situated,' and, consequently, . . . `no useful purpose
More recently, district courts have adhered to this rule. See Mills v. District of Columbia, 266 F.R.D. 20, 22 (D.D.C.2010) ("Class certification is particularly unnecessary where . . . `the suit is attacking a statute or regulation as being facially unconstitutional.'. . . In that circumstance, `there would appear to be little need for the suit to proceed as a class action' because `it can be assumed that if the court declares the statute or regulation unconstitutional then the responsible government officials will discontinue the [regulation's] enforcement."' (internal citations omitted)); Arnett v. Strayhorn, 515 F.Supp.2d 690, 698 (W.D.Tex.2006) ("The only issue remaining in this case is Plaintiff's challenge to the constitutionality of the Texas Unclaimed Property statute. . . . No useful purpose would be served by requiring this case to proceed as a class because all individuals who are not a part of this action, but who are aggrieved by the Texas Unclaimed Property Law in the same manner as Plaintiff, will have the benefit of this Court's ruling concerning the statute's constitutionality."); Phelps v. Powers, 295 F.R.D. 349, 356-57 (D.Iowa 2013); Johnson v. City of Opelousas, 488 F.Supp. 433, 435-36 (W.D.La.1980) ("[A] class action is unnecessary to insure an appropriate examination of the constitutionality of the [juvenile curfew] ordinance in question [because] [a]ny declaratory or injunctive relief given in the individual action of the named plaintiffs would inure to the benefit of other similarly situated minors.").
Here, I have already determined that ICE's use of the revised Form I-286 does not satisfy procedural due process, and that IJs' application of a "reason to believe" standard at the Joseph hearing is constitutionally infirm. As a result, the Government is directed by this Court to amend Form I-286 and Joseph hearings shall be conducted consistent with the rulings made herein. In that regard, no useful purpose would be served by certifying a class because all aliens who are subjected to mandatory detention would benefit from the injunctive relief and remedies that this Court has imposed. Accordingly, I deny Plaintiffs' motion to certify a class as unnecessary.
For the foregoing reasons, the Court decides the parties' summary judgment motions as follows: summary judgment is (1)
An appropriate order shall follow.
While Gayle was detained and his removal proceedings were ongoing, he filed a habeas petition in this Court asserting that DHS lacked the statutory authority to detain him under § 1226(c), because the statute requires DHS to take an alien into custody immediately upon release from custody on his conviction. This Court granted Gayle's petition and ordered the Immigration Judge to provide Gayle with a bond hearing. Gayle was released on bond on March 25, 2013. The Government has not appealed this Court's March 15, 2013 Order, notwithstanding the Third Circuit's opinion in Sylvain v. Atty. Gen. of the United States, 714 F.3d 150 (3d Cir. 2013), rejecting the argument that Section 1226(c) only allows for mandatory detention if DHS takes the alien into custody immediately upon release. Gayle was granted release on $6,500 bond on March 22, 2013. Defs.' Resp. to Pls.' Stmt. of Mat'l Facts ¶ 39.
Gayle, 4 F.Supp.3d at 718 (internal citations omitted). The Government seeks to re-litigate its prior motion to dismiss without any explanation warranting reconsideration of my March 14th opinion and order addressing the argument in question. Accordingly, I reject the Government's argument based on who carries the initial burden of proof at a Joseph hearing as a basis for dismissal of this claim. More importantly, as explained below, I find ICE's initial burden at the Joseph hearing before an IJ is constitutionally infirm.
