GLORIA M. NAVARRO, Chief Judge.
Pending before the Court is the Motion to Dismiss Plaintiff's First Amended Complaint (ECF No. 37) filed by the United States of America, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives ("BATFE"), U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder, Acting BATFE Director B. Todd Jones, and Assistant BATFE Director Arthur Herbert's (collectively, "Defendants"). Plaintiff S. Rowan Wilson ("Plaintiff") filed a Response (ECF No. 41) and Defendants filed a Reply (ECF No. 47).
This case arises from an asserted conflict between the right secured by the Second Amendment, certain provisions of the federal Gun Control Act that prohibit the users of controlled substances from procuring firearms, and the recent wave of state legislation legalizing the medical use of marijuana. In 2001, the Nevada legislature enacted legislation exempting the medical use of marijuana from state criminal prosecution in certain limited circumstances. See Nev.Rev.Stat. § 453A. Specifically, the legislation permits individuals who obtain a state-issued registry identification card ("state marijuana registry card") to use marijuana for medicinal purposes. Nev.Rev.Stat. § 453A.200(1)(f).
However, under the Controlled Substances Act, marijuana is listed as a controlled substance that cannot be lawfully prescribed and that the general public may not lawfully possess. 21 U.S.C. § 802(6); 21 U.S.C. § 812(c), Sched. I(c)(10). There is no provision under Federal law that permits any class of the general public to lawfully possess marijuana, including those wishing to use marijuana for medical purposes. See 21 U.S.C. § 823(f) (providing an exception to the ban on possession of Schedule I drugs for federally approved research projects); see also Gonzales v. Raich, 545 U.S. 1, 14, 125 S.Ct. 2195, 162 L.Ed.2d 1 (2005) ("By classifying marijuana as a Schedule I drug, as opposed to listing it on a lesser schedule, the ... possession of marijuana became a criminal offense, with the sole exception being use of the drug as part of a Food and Drug Administration pre-approved research study."). In contrast, the Controlled Substances Act expressly recognizes that "there is a lack of accepted safety for use of [marijuana] under medical supervision." 21 U.S.C. § 812(b)(1)(A)-(C). See 21 U.S.C. § 829; see also United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Coop., 532 U.S. 483, 491, 121 S.Ct. 1711, 149 L.Ed.2d 722 (2001) ("Whereas some other drugs can be
Furthermore, the Federal Gun Control Act of 1968 ("Gun Control Act") prohibits "any person ... who is an unlawful user of or addicted to any controlled substance... [to] possess ... any firearm or ammunition...." 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(3). Additionally, § 922(d)(3) prohibits any person from selling or otherwise disposing of "any firearm or ammunition to any person knowing or having reasonable cause to believe that such person ... is an unlawful user of or addicted to any controlled substance...." 18 U.S.C. § 922(d)(3).
In September 2011, because of the growing number of states that permit the medicinal use of marijuana, the ATF issued an "Open Letter." Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Open Letter, Open Letter to All Federal Firearms Licensees — The use of marijuana for medical purpose and its applicability to Federal firearms laws (Sept. 26, 2011), available at http://www.atf.gov/press/ releases/2011/09/ 092611-atf-open-letter-to-all-ffls-marijuana-for-medicinal-purposes.pdf [hereinafter "ATF Open Letter"]. Notably, this letter informed all individuals licensed to sell firearms ("Federal Firearms Licensees" or "FFLs") that "if [the seller is] aware that the potential transferee is in possession of a card authorizing the possession and use of marijuana under State law, then you have `reasonable cause to believe' that the person is an unlawful user of a controlled substance." Id. Thus, the letter advised FFLs and provided them notice that the agency which issues their license (the BATFE) interpreted § 922 as not only criminalizing the possession of a firearm by a registry card holder, but also the sale of a firearm to a registry card holder.
In the fall of 2010, due to her struggle with severe dysmenorrhea, Plaintiff applied for and obtained a state marijuana registry card. (First Am. Compl. ("FAC") ¶¶ 35-36, ECF No. 34.) Plaintiff subsequently applied to purchase a firearm at a gun store in Mound House, Nevada. (Id. ¶¶ 17-24.) However, the store's proprietor prevented her from completing her application he knew she carried a state marijuana registry card. (Id. ¶ 22.)
As a result, Plaintiff filed this lawsuit in October 2011. (Compl., ECF No. 1.) In her suit, Plaintiff challenges the constitutionality of the two provisions of the Gun Control Act that effectively criminalize the sale and possession of a firearm by the holder of a registry card: 18 U.S.C. §§ 922(d)(3) and (g)(3). (FAC ¶¶ 51-56.) Plaintiff also challenges the constitutionality of one of the accompanying regulations, 27 C.F.R. § 478.11, that defines the term "unlawful user of or addicted to any controlled substance" as used in §§ 922(d)(3) and (g)(3). (Id.) Finally, Plaintiff challenges the ATF policy that federal firearms licensees may not sell a firearm to persons they know are "in possession of a card authorizing the possession and use of marijuana under State law...." ATF Open Letter. Plaintiff claims that these provisions, along with the ATF policy, violate her Second Amendment right to "keep and bear Arms"; her First Amendment right to free speech; as well as her rights to substantive due process, procedural due process and equal protection as secured by the Fifth Amendment.
In response to Plaintiff's initiating this action, Defendant filed a Motion to Dismiss. (Mot. to Dismiss, ECF No. 10.) Thereafter, on November 11, 2012, the Court held a hearing at which the Court ordered supplemental briefing on several issues. (Minutes of Proceedings, ECF No. 30.) Prior to the deadline for filing the supplemental briefing, the parties filed a Joint Motion to Amend/Correct Complaint.
"Federal courts are courts of limited jurisdiction. They possess only that power authorized by Constitution and statute." Kokkonen v. Guardian Life Ins. Co. of Am., 511 U.S. 375, 377, 114 S.Ct. 1673, 128 L.Ed.2d 391 (1994). Therefore, before a federal court may consider the merits of a case, it must first determine whether it has proper subject matter jurisdiction. Scott v. Pasadena Unified Sch. Dist., 306 F.3d 646, 653-54 (9th Cir.2002); see also Ex Parte McCardle, 74 U.S. (7 Wall.) 506, 514, 19 L.Ed. 264 (1868) ("Without jurisdiction the court cannot proceed at all in any cause. Jurisdiction is power to declare the law, and when it ceases to exist, the only function remaining to the court is that of announcing the fact and dismissing the cause.").
For the reasons discussed below, the Court concludes that Plaintiff has, at this stage of the litigation, adequately established that she has standing to assert these causes of action. In addition, the Court determines that this case is not rendered moot by the absence of a currently valid medical marijuana registry card from the record. Accordingly, the Court does not lack jurisdiction to consider the merits of this case.
Article III of the United States Constitution limits the power of the judiciary to hear only "cases" and "controversies." U.S. Const. art. III, § 2; see also Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555, 559-60, 112 S.Ct. 2130, 119 L.Ed.2d 351 (1992). Standing is a core component of the Article III case or controversy requirement and focuses on whether the action was initiated by the proper plaintiff. See Davis v. Fed. Election Comm'n, 554 U.S. 724, 732-33, 128 S.Ct. 2759, 171 L.Ed.2d 737 (2008) (quoting Friends of Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Envtl. Servs. (TOC), Inc., 528 U.S. 167, 189, 120 S.Ct. 693, 145 L.Ed.2d 610 (2000) ("[T]he party invoking federal jurisdiction [must] have standing — the `personal interest that must exist at the commencement of the litigation.'")); see also Arakaki v. Lingle, 477 F.3d 1048, 1059 (9th Cir.2007) ("Standing ensures that, no matter the academic merits of the claim, the suit has been brought by a proper party."). The "irreducible constitutional minimum of standing" requires that a plaintiff demonstrate three elements. Lujan, 504 U.S. at 560, 112 S.Ct. 2130.
Id. at 560-61, 112 S.Ct. 2130 (internal quotation marks and citations omitted).
Defendants' argument that Plaintiff has failed to establish an injury in fact
In this case, at the time that Plaintiff initiated this action, she held a valid state marijuana registry card. (FAC ¶ 41, ECF No. 34; FAC Ex. 1-B, ECF No. 34-1.) It is precisely because she held this card that the owner of the firearms store informed Plaintiff that "he could not sell her a firearm without jeopardizing his federal firearms license." (FAC ¶¶ 22-23.) As a result, Plaintiff claims that she was deprived of several of her constitutional rights. (FAC ¶¶ 50-97.) Therefore, Plaintiff has adequately alleged "an invasion of a legally protected interest which is (a) concrete and particularized and (b) actual or imminent, not conjectural or hypothetical." Lujan, 504 U.S. at 560-61, 112 S.Ct. 2130.
The causation element of standing requires that "the injury ... be fairly traceable to the challenged action of the defendant, and not the result of the independent action of some third party not before the court." Lujan, 504 U.S. at 560-61, 112 S.Ct. 2130. Defendants argue that Plaintiff cannot satisfy the causation requirement of standing because her injury is "self-inflicted." (Mot. to Dismiss 13:3-4.) The Court disagrees.
True enough, injuries that are truly "self-inflicted" cannot serve as the basis for standing because they are not fairly traceable to any action other than action by the plaintiff. See, e.g., Pennsylvania v. New Jersey, 426 U.S. 660, 664, 96 S.Ct. 2333, 49 L.Ed.2d 124 (1976) (concluding that States that extended tax credits to their residents for income taxes paid in other states were suffering from self-inflicted injuries, "resulting from decisions by their respective state legislatures"). In this case, Defendants assert that their Open Letter advising FFLs to restrict the class of citizens with medical marijuana cards from purchasing firearms is an injury that these citizens are inflicting upon themselves. (Mot. to Dismiss 13:1-24.) Plaintiff alleges that her injury is her inability to purchase a firearm. (FAC ¶ 42, ECF No. 34.) Plaintiff further alleges that this injury resulted solely from the gun store owner's reliance on the BATFE's "open letter ... [that] instructed firearms licensees to deny the sale of firearms or ammunition to any person whom the licensee is aware possesses a card authorizing such person to possess and use marijuana under state law." (Id. ¶¶ 42-43.)
Thus, it appears to the Court that the causal connection between Defendants' actions and Plaintiff's alleged injury remains intact and Defendant has failed to provide
Defendant finally argues that Plaintiff's claims would not be redressable by a declaration on the constitutionality of the challenged statutes, regulations and policies because an unchallenged statute, 18 U.S.C. § 922(b)(2), would still act to prevent FFLs from selling a firearm to Plaintiff. (Mot. to Dismiss 13:25-14:10, ECF No. 37.) Specifically, § 922(b)(2) prohibits a FFL from selling a firearm "to any person in any State where the purchase or possession by such person of such firearm would be in violation of any State law...." 18 U.S.C. § 922(b)(2).
There is a similar state law, § 202.360(1)(c) of the Nevada Revised Statute, which prohibits an individual from possessing a firearm if that individual "[i]s an unlawful user of, or addicted to, any controlled substance." Nev.Rev.Stat. § 202.360(1)(c). Furthermore, § 202.360 incorporates its definition of "controlled substance" from the federal Controlled Substances Act, which, as discussed above, includes marijuana. Nev.Rev.Stat. § 202.360(3)(a) ("`Controlled substance' has the meaning ascribed to it in 21 U.S.C. § 802(6)."). See generally 21 U.S.C. § 802(6) ("The term `controlled substance' means a drug or other substance, or immediate precursor, included in schedule I, II, III, IV, or V...."); 21 U.S.C. § 812(b)(1) (defining a Schedule I controlled substance as a "drug or substance [with] a high potential for abuse"; "a drug or substance [that] has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States"; and a drug or substance for which "[t]here is a lack of accepted safety for use ... under medical supervision"); 21 U.S.C. § 812(b)(1) (Sched. I)(c)(10) (listing "marihuana" as a Schedule I controlled substance).
However, Defendants have failed to provide any Nevada state law or regulation whereby state marijuana registry cardholders have been similarly interpreted to be prohibited from purchasing firearms under state law solely based on the buyer's possession of a registry card. Furthermore, these state statutes fail to address the heart of the issue in this case: whether the BATFE's policy interpreting the possession of a state marijuana registry card as providing an FFL with "reasonable cause to believe" that the holder of the card is a user of a controlled substance, thus prohibiting any sale of firearms or ammunition to Plaintiff, is a violation of her constitutional rights. (See FAC ¶¶ 43-44, ECF No. 34; FAC Ex. 2-B, ECF No. 34-2.) Therefore, Defendants argument fails and the Court finds that the relief
Although Defendants presented their jurisdiction-based argument as relating to standing, the Court finds this argument is more properly characterized as one directed to the doctrine of mootness. The Supreme Court often defines mootness as "the doctrine of standing set in a time frame: The requisite personal interest that must exist at the commencement of the litigation (standing) must continue throughout its existence (mootness)." U.S. Parole Comm'n v. Geraghty, 445 U.S. 388, 397, 100 S.Ct. 1202, 63 L.Ed.2d 479 (1980) (quotation marks omitted). When faced with the question of whether a case has been rendered moot, the "central question" is "whether changes in the circumstances that prevailed at the beginning of the litigation have forestalled any occasion for meaningful relief." Ctr. For Biological Diversity v. Lohn, 511 F.3d 960, 963 (9th Cir.2007).
At first glance, the issues that Plaintiff raises would appear moot because the record lacks a currently valid registry card. Specifically, the state marijuana registry card that Plaintiff attached to the FAC expired on March 10, 2012. (FAC Ex. 1-B, ECF No. 34-1.) In an effort to cure this defect, Plaintiff attached a renewed registry card to her Response to Defendants' Motion to Dismiss, however, due to the duration of litigation in this case, that registry card has now also expired as well; it expired on March 10, 2013. (Resp. Ex. A, ECF No. 41-1.) Plaintiff has failed to further supplement the record with an additional registry card and, thus, there is no valid registry card currently on the record. Accordingly, this defect would appear to render this case technically moot.
However, the Supreme Court has established an exception to the general principles of mootness for cases that implicate wrongs that are "capable of repetition yet evad[e] review." S. Pac. Terminal Co. v. ICC, 219 U.S. 498, 514-15, 31 S.Ct. 279, 55 L.Ed. 310 (1911); Weinstein v. Bradford, 423 U.S. 147, 148-49, 96 S.Ct. 347, 46 L.Ed.2d 350 (1975). This exception applies when two elements are satisfied: "(1) the challenged action was in its duration too short to be fully litigated prior to its cessation or expiration, and (2) there [is] a reasonable expectation that the same complaining party would be subjected to the same action again." Weinstein, 423 U.S. at 149, 96 S.Ct. 347.
As discussed below, the Court finds that Plaintiff has established each of the two elements of the "capable of repetition yet evading review" exception.
To determine whether an issue "evades review," the Ninth Circuit has instructed courts to consider whether "the underlying action is almost certain to run its course before [the federal courts] can give the case full consideration." Alaska Ctr. For Env't v. U.S. Forest Serv., 189 F.3d 851, 855 (9th Cir.1999). The Supreme Court has previously held that eighteen months was insufficient time to accommodate complete judicial review. See First Nat'l Bank v. Bellotti, 435 U.S. 765, 774, 98 S.Ct. 1407, 55 L.Ed.2d 707 (1978). Similarly, the Ninth Circuit has held that the issuance of a two-year permit is sufficiently short in duration to evade review. Alaska Ctr. For Env't, 189 F.3d at 855.
Nevada law provides for the issuance of registry cards that expire one year after the issuance. See Nev.Rev.Stat. § 453A.230 (providing that a registry card "shall be deemed expired" if the holder fails to, among other things, submit annual
"The second prong of the repetition/evasion exception requires some indication that the challenged conduct will be repeated." Alaska Ctr. For Env't v. U.S. Forest Serv., 189 F.3d 851, 856 (9th Cir. 1999). More recently, the Ninth Circuit has articulated that the prong requires a "reasonable expectation that the same party will confront the same controversy again." W. Coast Seafood Processors Ass'n v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 643 F.3d 701, 704 (9th Cir.2011) (internal quotation marks omitted).
In the present case, Plaintiff's FAC alleges sufficient facts from which the Court can conclude that Plaintiff will confront this issue again in the future. Specifically, the FAC alleges that Plaintiff has exhibited a sincere interest in "the use of cannabis for medical purposes" for at least three years. (FAC ¶¶ 27-28, ECF No. 34.) The FAC further alleges that Plaintiff first applied for a registry card for treatment of her dysmenorrhea, a condition with which she has struggled since she was ten years of age. (Id. ¶ 35.) Plaintiff has battled this condition for more than three decades. (See FAC Ex. 1-B.) Finally, neither party has provided any indication that Plaintiff's dysmenorrhea has subsided to the point that she no longer qualifies for a state marijuana registry card.
Because Plaintiff's FAC alleges sufficient facts to satisfy both prongs, the Court concludes that this case meets the "capable of repetition yet evading review" exception to the mootness doctrine. Therefore, the Court finds that the issues presented by this action are not mooted by the expiration of Plaintiff's state marijuana registry card or the absence of a currently valid state marijuana registry card from the record. The fact that Plaintiff possessed a valid card at the time of the alleged injury and renewed the card for at least one more year is sufficient. Accordingly, the Court may properly assert subject matter jurisdiction over this action.
When considering a motion to dismiss under Rule 12(b)(6) for failure to state a claim, dismissal is appropriate only when the complaint does not give the defendant fair notice of a legally cognizable claim and the grounds on which it rests. See Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 555, 127 S.Ct. 1955, 167 L.Ed.2d 929 (2007). In considering whether the complaint is sufficient to state a claim, the Court will take all material allegations as true and construe them in the light most favorable to the plaintiff. See NL Indus., Inc. v. Kaplan, 792 F.2d 896, 898 (9th Cir.1986).
The Court, however, is not required to accept as true allegations that are merely conclusory, unwarranted deductions of fact, or unreasonable inferences. See Sprewell v. Golden State Warriors, 266 F.3d 979, 988 (9th Cir.2001). A formulaic recitation of a cause of action with conclusory allegations is not sufficient; a plaintiff must plead facts showing that a violation is plausible, not just possible. Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678, 129 S.Ct. 1937, 173 L.Ed.2d 868 (2009) (citing Twombly, 550 U.S. at 555, 127 S.Ct. 1955) (emphasis added).
If the court grants a motion to dismiss, it must then decide whether to grant leave to amend. The court should "freely give" leave to amend when there is no "undue delay, bad faith[,] dilatory motive
The Second Amendment protects "the right of the people to keep and bear Arms" from government infringement. U.S. Const. amend. II. Moreover, the Supreme Court has held that this right is an individual right. District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570, 626, 128 S.Ct. 2783, 171 L.Ed.2d 637 (2008). However, the Court also held that this individual right is "not unlimited" and that, for example, prohibitions on the possession of firearms by felons and the mentally ill are presumptively lawful. Id. at 626-27, 128 S.Ct. 2783; see also id. at 627 n. 26, 128 S.Ct. 2783 ("We identify these presumptively lawful regulatory measures only as examples; our list does not purport to be exhaustive.").
In this case, Plaintiff challenges both § 922(d)(3) and § 922(g)(3) under the Second Amendment. The Court analyzes each section individually.
Section 922(g)(3) prohibits users of a controlled substance from possessing a firearm. 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(3). Plaintiff's FAC states that this law infringes upon her right to keep and bear arms under the Second Amendment. (FAC ¶ 54, ECF No. 34.) However, Plaintiff's FAC fails as a matter of law because the Ninth Circuit has already upheld the constitutionality of § 922(g)(3). United States v. Dugan, 657 F.3d 998, 999-1000 (9th Cir.2011). In Dugan, based on the Supreme Court's acknowledgement that the individual right to possess and carry weapons is not unlimited, the Ninth Circuit observed that "[h]abitual drug users, like career criminals and the mentally ill, more likely will have difficulty exercising self-control, particularly when they are under the influence of controlled substances." Id. at 999 (citing Heller, 554 U.S. at 592, 128 S.Ct. 2783). The court further noted an important distinction between the subsections of § 922 expressly discussed by the Supreme Court in Heller and 922(g)(3):
Dugan, 657 F.3d at 999. Therefore, given this distinction and the danger presented by users of controlled substances, the Ninth Circuit joined the Seventh and Eighth Circuits by broadly holding that "Congress may ... prohibit illegal drug users from possessing firearms." Id. at 999-1000.
Plaintiff first feebly attempts to discredit Dugan by stating that Dugan "is a deeply flawed opinion, lacking any meaningful legal analysis...." (Resp. 22:11-13, ECF No. 41.) However, Dugan remains controlling authority on this Court. Furthermore, this Court lacks the authority to overrule a Ninth Circuit decision.
Next, Plaintiff unpersuasively attempts to distinguish her case from the facts in Dugan. Specifically, Plaintiff argues that "Mr. Dugan was the very sort of person that § 922(g)(3) was designed for — a dangerous criminal." (Resp. 22:22-24.) Plaintiff argues that this law is overbroad because
Because Dugan resolves Plaintiff's Second Amendment attack of § 922(g)(3), the Court need not undergo an independent constitutional analysis. Therefore, the Court dismisses Plaintiff's Second Amendment challenge to § 922(g)(3). In light of Dugan, any amendment of this claim would be futile and, thus, Plaintiff's Second Amendment challenge to § 922(g)(3) is dismissed with prejudice.
Section 922(d)(3) prohibits the sale of a firearm to any person whom the seller knows or has "reasonable cause to believe... is an unlawful user of ... a controlled substance...." 18 U.S.C. § 922(d)(3). In addition, the BATFE Open Letter at issue in this case advised that an FFL has "reasonable cause to believe" that a potential buyer is an unlawful user of a controlled substance within the meaning of the Gun Control Act if the FFL is aware that the potential buyer or transferee possesses a registry card. See ATF Open Letter. Thus, under the BATFE's interpretation of "reasonable cause to believe," FFLs are prohibited from selling or transferring firearms or ammunition to the holder of a registry card. ATF Open Letter; see also 18 U.S.C. § 922(d)(3).
In Plaintiff's FAC, she alleges that this law infringes and imposes an impermissible burden on her right to keep and bear arms under the Second Amendment. (FAC ¶¶ 54-55, ECF No. 34.) The Court recognizes that, in Dugan, the Ninth Circuit addressed only the constitutionality of § 922(g)(3). See Dugan, 657 F.3d at 999-1000. However, the reasoning that supports the Court's determination that Plaintiff's FAC fails to state a plausible claim challenging § 922(g)(3) applies equally to Plaintiff's challenge to section (d)(3) of the same statute. Just as Congress may constitutionally preclude illegal drug users from possessing a firearm, Congress likewise may preclude FFLs from selling firearms to illegal drug users and thereby prevent such prohibited persons from acquiring firearms. See Dugan, 657 F.3d at 999-1000.
For these reasons, the Court dismisses Plaintiff's Second Amendment challenge to § 922(d)(3). Because the Court concludes that amendment of this claim would be futile, Plaintiff's Second Amendment challenge to § 922(d)(3) is dismissed with prejudice.
In addition to challenging the two subsections of § 922, Plaintiff also claims that the BATFE's policies and regulations impermissibly infringe on her Second Amendment right. (FAC ¶¶ 54-55, ECF No. 34.) Plaintiff identifies 27 C.F.R. § 478.11 and alleges the definition of "unlawful user ..." contained therein imposes an impermissible burden on her Second Amendment right.
Even to the extent that Plaintiff does allege that § 478.11 infringes her Second Amendment rights, her claim fails because § 478.11 is consistent with 21 U.S.C. § 802, which provides that the possession and use of marijuana is prohibited by federal law. Plaintiff correctly notes that the definition of "unlawful user" excludes any person using a controlled substance in a manner "as prescribed by a licensed physician." 27 C.F.R. § 478.11. However, marijuana is categorized by federal law as a Schedule I controlled substance under 21 U.S.C. § 812(c)(Schedule I)(c)(10). Controlled substances in Schedule I are defined by statute as having "no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States." 21 U.S.C. § 812(b)(1)(B); see also United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Coop., 532 U.S. 483, 491, 121 S.Ct. 1711, 149 L.Ed.2d 722 (2001) (recognizing the statutory determination that "marijuana has no medical benefits worthy of an exception (outside the confines of a Government-approved research project)"). Therefore, a regulation that prohibits any user of marijuana from possessing a firearm or ammunition is also consistent with 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(3), which, as discussed above in Section III. B.1, the Ninth Circuit has previously found to be constitutional in Dugan. Accordingly, all the reasons that support the constitutionality of the statutes related to the sale and possession of firearms equally apply to 27 C.F.R. § 478.11.
Plaintiff begins her Response to Defendants' Motion to Dismiss her Second Amendment claims by reciting a string of
In Plaintiff's FAC, she asserts that the First Amendment confers a right to exercise "certain non-verbal and communicative conduct, which, in this case, includes, without limitation, the acquisition, possession, and acknowledgment of possession of a medical marijuana registry card validly issued pursuant to state law." (FAC ¶ 82, ECF No. 34.) Thus, Plaintiff contends that "[b]y acquiring, possessing, and acknowledging possession of a medical marijuana registry card, Plaintiff is exercising her First Amendment right to free speech." (Id. ¶ 85.) Plaintiff alleges that her possession of a registry card is a "tangible symbol" of her "deeply held beliefs that marijuana should be legal for medical use"; her "belief and opinion that her fellow citizens of Nevada were correct to have forced changes to Nevada law legalizing marijuana for medical use"; and her "belief and opinion that citizens in each
It is well-established that the First Amendment's protection "does not end at the spoken or written word." Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397, 404, 109 S.Ct. 2533, 105 L.Ed.2d 342 (1989). Rather, certain conduct "may be sufficiently imbued with elements of communication to fall within the scope of the First ... Amendment[]." Id. (internal quotation marks omitted). However, the Supreme Court has repeatedly "rejected `the view that an apparently limitless variety of conduct can be labeled `speech' whenever the person engaging in the conduct intends thereby to express an idea.'" Id. (quoting United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S. 367, 376, 88 S.Ct. 1673, 20 L.Ed.2d 672 (1968)).
To determine whether conduct possesses sufficient "elements of communication," courts engage in a two-pronged analysis. First, courts determine "whether `an intent to convey a particularized message was present.'" Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. at 404, 109 S.Ct. 2533 (quoting Spence v. Washington, 418 U.S. 405, 410-11, 94 S.Ct. 2727, 41 L.Ed.2d 842 (1974)). Second, courts look to "whether `the likelihood was great that the message would be understood by those who viewed it.'" Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. at 404, 109 S.Ct. 2533 (quoting Spence, 418 U.S. at 411, 94 S.Ct. 2727).
Even assuming that Plaintiff has adequately pleaded the two prongs of the Spence test for when conduct is expressive, Plaintiff's claim fails under the analysis applying the correct level of scrutiny.
Plaintiff asserts that this Court must apply strict scrutiny to the challenged policy. Plaintiff is mistaken. Strict scrutiny applies only when the government "proscribe[s] particular conduct because it has expressive elements" or enforces a "law directed at the communicative
Under O'Brien, even after a court determines that the conduct at issue implicates the First Amendment, "it does not necessarily follow that [the conduct at issue] is constitutionally protected activity." 391 U.S. at 376, 88 S.Ct. 1673. "[W]hen `speech' and `nonspeech' elements are combined in the same course of conduct, a sufficiently important governmental interest in regulating the nonspeech element can justify incidental limitations on First Amendment freedoms." Id. More specifically:
Id. at 377, 88 S.Ct. 1673.
Here, Plaintiff fails to establish that this policy fails the test articulated by the Supreme Court in O'Brien. First, neither party asserts that the Government lacks the constitutional authority to regulate the possession and sale of firearms. Second, the challenged policy furthers the important governmental interest of protecting public safety and preventing violent crime. See United States v. Dugan, 657 F.3d 998, 999 (9th Cir.2011) (recognizing the "danger in allowing habitual drug users to traffic in firearms because ... [they] more likely will have difficulty exercising self-control, particularly when they are under the influence of controlled substances"). Third, this interest is unrelated to the suppression of free expression. Finally, any restriction on Plaintiff's First Amendment right is no greater than necessary to further this interest. Specifically, the policy does not prohibit individuals from advocating for the legalization of marijuana for medicinal purposes. Similarly,
Substantive due process refers to the protection of "those fundamental rights and liberties which are, objectively, deeply rooted in this Nation's history and tradition." Washington v. Glucksberg, 521 U.S. 702, 720-21, 117 S.Ct. 2258, 138 L.Ed.2d 772 (1997) (internal quotation marks omitted). In Plaintiff's FAC, she asserts that her "right to possess a handgun under the Second Amendment is objectively deeply rooted in the Nation's history and tradition and implicit in the concept of ordered liberty such that neither liberty nor justice would exist if they were sacrificed." (FAC ¶ 75, ECF No. 34 (emphasis added).) Similarly, Plaintiff asserts that she "possesses a fundamental right to free speech under the First Amendment which includes certain non-verbal speech...." (Id. ¶ 77 (emphasis added).)
The Supreme Court has long foreclosed this type of claim. For this reason, Plaintiff's cause of action for violations of the substantive due process clause of the 5th Amendment fails and must be dismissed. Specifically, more than two decades ago, the Supreme Court first held that "[w]here a particular Amendment provides an explicit textual source of constitutional protection against a particular sort of government behavior, that Amendment, not the more generalized notion of substantive due process, must be the guide for analyzing these claims." Albright v. Oliver, 510 U.S. 266, 273, 114 S.Ct. 807, 127 L.Ed.2d 114 (1994) (quoting Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386, 395, 109 S.Ct. 1865, 104 L.Ed.2d 443 (1989)) (internal quotation marks omitted). In fact, the Supreme Court has employed this principle to countless amendments. For example, in Stop the Beach Renourishment, Inc. v. Florida Department of Environmental Protection, the Court noted that "[t]he first problem with using Substantive Due Process to do the work of the Takings Clause is that we have held it cannot be done." 560 U.S. 702, 721, 130 S.Ct. 2592, 177 L.Ed.2d 184 (2010) (citing Albright, 510 U.S. at 273, 114 S.Ct. 807). Similarly, in Turner v. Rogers, the Court concluded that a criminal defendant could not use the Due Process Clause to assert a claim for violations of his Sixth Amendment right to appointed counsel. ___ U.S. ___, 131 S.Ct. 2507, 2522, 180 L.Ed.2d 452 (2011) ("[W]e do not read a general provision to render a specific one superfluous.").
Plaintiff attempts to salvage this claim by arguing that the provisions in her FAC that refer to her First and Second Amendment rights, (FAC ¶¶ 75-77), "such provisions in the FAC do not waive Plaintiff's previous assertion that she possess [sic] a liberty right in the ability to choose a course of medical treatment...." (Resp. 29:1-5, ECF No. 41.) This argument is fatally flawed for at least two reasons. First, Plaintiff cannot attempt to cure defects
For these reasons, the Court concludes that Plaintiff has not and cannot state a claim for violations of the substantive due process claim. Because the Court finds that amendment would be futile, this cause of action is dismissed with prejudice.
In Plaintiff's FAC, she alleges that "Defendants have denied the Plaintiff adequate procedural protections before depriving her of her right to purchase and possess a firearm." (FAC ¶ 71, ECF No. 34.) However, because Plaintiff has failed to identify a constitutionally protected liberty or property interest, as required by the Fifth Amendment, her claim fails and must be dismissed.
The relevant portion of the Fifth Amendment provides that "No person shall ... be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law...." U.S. Const. amend. V. To successfully allege a procedural due process claim, plaintiffs must provide sufficient facts establishing the plausible existence of two elements: "(1) a deprivation of a constitutionally protected liberty or property interest, and (2) a denial of adequate procedural protections." Brewster v. Bd. of Educ. of Lynwood Unified Sch. Dist., 149 F.3d 971, 982 (9th Cir.1998). The Court need not reach the second element because Plaintiff has not alleged that Defendants deprived her of a constitutionally protected liberty or property interest. See Bd. of Regents v. Roth, 408 U.S. 564, 569, 92 S.Ct. 2701, 33 L.Ed.2d 548 (1972) (holding that adequate procedural protections are required only when the plaintiff has been deprived of a liberty or property interest).
In her opposition brief, Plaintiff first asserts that "[t]he United States Constitution requires that whenever a governmental body acts to injure an individual, that act must be consonant with due process of law." (Resp. 30:17-18, ECF No. 41.) Plaintiff concludes that Defendants' determination that those persons that possess a registry card fit the definition of an "unlawful user of a controlled substance" deprives her of a right without adequate
The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment provides that "[n]o state shall ... deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." Although the Fourteenth Amendment applies only to state action, the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment, which does apply to the federal government, encompasses the protections of the Equal Protection Clause. Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497, 74 S.Ct. 693, 98 L.Ed. 884 (1954). The equal protection component of the Due Process Clause is "essentially a direction that all persons similarly situated be treated alike." City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Ctr., Inc., 473 U.S. 432, 439, 105 S.Ct. 3249, 87 L.Ed.2d 313 (1985). To state a valid claim under the equal protection component of the Fifth Amendment, Plaintiff "must show that the statute in question results in members of a certain group being treated differently from other persons based on membership in that group." Sagana v. Tenorio, 384 F.3d 731, 740 (9th Cir.2004) (internal quotation marks omitted); see also Gonzalez-Medina v. Holder, 641 F.3d 333, 336 (9th Cir.2011) ("To establish an equal protection violation, [the plaintiff] must show that she is being treated differently from similarly situated individuals.").
Plaintiff's FAC first alleges that she "is being treated differently from persons who are prescribed medical marijuana in states where the obtainment of a state-issued medical marijuana registry card is not required." (FAC ¶ 62, ECF No. 34.) This statement is insufficient to state an equal protection claim. The laws, regulation, and policy that Plaintiff challenges are neither "applied in a discriminatory manner," nor does it "impose[ ] different burdens on different classes of people." See Freeman v. City of Santa Ana, 68 F.3d 1180, 1187 (9th Cir.1995). Plaintiff's argument simply acknowledges that marijuana users in states that do not require registry cards may more easily evade and violate federal law. See United States v. Hendrickson, 664 F.Supp.2d 793, 798 (E.D.Mich.2009) ("There is no right under the Constitution to have the law go unenforced against you, even if you are the first person against whom it is enforced.... The law does not need to be enforced everywhere to be legitimately enforced somewhere." (quotation omitted)).
Plaintiff further alleges that she "is also being treated differently from similarly situated persons with similar medical conditions to those of the Plaintiff.... Other similarly situated individuals who likewise pursue different methods of treatment for medical conditions have not been denied their ability to obtain handguns." (Id. ¶ 63.) However, although the use of marijuana for medical purposes may not violate Nevada state law, this same use is still prohibited under federal law. See e.g., 21 U.S.C. § 844(a) (prohibiting possession of controlled substances); see also ATF Open Letter (stating that "[t]he Federal government does not recognize marijuana as a medicine"). The fact remains that, by "follow[ing] state laws for the obtainment of treatment for her medical condition,"
For these reasons, Plaintiff's complaint fails to state a plausible claim under the equal protection component of the Fifth Amendment. Accordingly, the Court dismisses Plaintiff's equal protection claim with prejudice.
The Clerk of the Court shall enter judgment accordingly.
